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Lind
HO
C«rb, a.
FOLK-LORE RESEARCHES. IL
THE WOMEN OF TURKEY
■.\^
•V-UlL- I'a-J-—
THE
Women of Turkey
AND THEIR FOLK-LORE
BY
LUCY M. J. GARNETT
WITH CONCLUDING CHAPTERS ON
THE ORIGINS OF MATRIARCHY
BY
JOHN S. STUART-GLENNIE, M.A.
OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE, BARRISTBR-AT-LAW
AUTHOR OF "the NEW PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY," ETC. EDITOR OF "greek FOLK-SONGS," ETC.
Plato, Kpar. 74.
Facilius enlm MuUeres incorruptam antiquitatem conservant.
Cicero, De Omt. iii. it.
THE JEWISH AND MOSLEM WOMEN
LONDON DAVID NUTT, 270-271 STRAND, W.C.
1891
GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
«♦»
»»
»»
PART II. THE JEWISH WOMEN OF TURKEY.
PAGE
Chap. I.^Judaic Women : thkib Family Life, Status, and
Occupations 3
„ II.— Judaic Women: thkib Family Cebbmonies . 22
III.— Judaic Women : theib Cultubb- and Folk-beliefs . 42
IV.-rJuDAic Women : theib Folk-poesy .... 75
„ v.— Dt^NM^H Women : theib Family Life and Beliefs 95
PART III.
THE MOSLEM WOMEN OF TURKEY.
Chap. I.— Kcbdish Women : theib Family Life, Status, and
Occupations 113
II.— KoBDiSH Women : theib Family Cebbmonies . -131
III.— Kobdish Women : theib Cultube- and Folk-beliefs 137
IV. — Kobdish Women : theib Folk- poesy — Folk-tales . 154 v.— CiBCAssiAN Women : theib Family Life and
Beliefs 190
VI.— CiBCASsiAN Women : theib Folk-poesy— Folk-tales 196 „ VII.— YOBCK Women : Family Life and Cebbmonies, and
Cultube- and Folk-beliefs 207
„ VIII.— Albanian Women : Family Life, . Status, and
Occupations 214
„ IX.— Albanian Women : theib Family Cebbmonies . 242
„ X. — ^Albanian Women : theib Cultube-bbliefs . . 266
»»
««
»»
»t
»»
345538
If
»
»»
»»
»»
»»
»»
vi GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Chap. XI.— Albanian Women : their Folk-beliefs . . 272 XII.— Albanian Women : their Folk-poesy— Folk- tales AND Folk-songs 299
XIII.— Tatar Women : their Family Life and Family
Ceremonies 346
XIV.— Gipsy Women : their Family Life and Beliefs 355 XV.~Gipsy Women : their Folk-poesy — Folk-tales 363 XVI.— OsMANLi Women : Slave Women— Sultanas,
Favourites, and Menials 382
„ XVII.— OsMANLi Women : Slave Women— Domestic
Slaves 403
XVIII. — OsMANLi Women : their Family Life— Houses,
Personal Appearance, and Dress . . .418 XIX.— OSMANLI . Women j their Family Life— Status,
Marriage, and Divorce 433
Note by the Editor: Moslem and Christian
Marriage Laws 446
XX.— OSMANLI Women : their Family Life— Occupa- tions, Amusements, and Education . . .453 XXI.— OsMANLi Women : their Family Ceremonies . 472 „ XXII. — OsMANLi Women : their Culture- and Folk- beliefs 498
XXIII.— OSMANLI Women : their Folk-poesy— Folk-tales 514 XXIV.— OsMANLi Women : Poetesses of the Rise,
Decline, and Fall of the Empire . . .528
CONCLUDING CHAPTERS BY THE EDITOR.— THE ORIGINS OP MATRIARCHY.
Chap. I.— A General Theory of Historical Origins . 549
„ II.— An Analysis of the Marriage Folk-lorb above
Collected -563
„ III.— A Deduced Theory of Matriarchal Origins . . 595
»»
»»
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
]>ART II.— THE JEWISH WOMEN.
CHAPTER I.
JUDAIC WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE— STATUS AND OCCUPATIONS.
The Jewish Communities of Turkey, 3 ; Two Types, 4 ; A Jewish Quarter, 4 ; Overcrowding and Insanitoriness, 5 ; A Jvdenhetze in Smyrna, 7 ; Christian Hostility to the Jews, 8 ; Status of Jewish Women, 9 ; Local Government, 10; Early Marriages, 11 ; Polygamy, 12 ; Social Morality, 12; Perversion to Islam, 13; Costumes at Salonica, 13; at Constan- tinople, 15 ; The Chalehi^ 15 ; Its Abandonment Punished by the Cholera, 16; Dress at Aleppo, 17; Occupations, 17; Amusements, 17; Education, 18; An Entertainment, 19; Missions to the Jews, 20; Charitable Societies, 21.
CHAPTER II.
JUDAIC WOMEN : THEIB FAMILY CEREMONIES.
Large Families, 22 ; Birth Ceremonies, 22 ; Guarding the Child from Demons, 22 ; Circumcision, 22 ; Redeeming the First-bom, 23 ; Jewish Marriages, 24 ; The Betrothal, 25 ; The Kethvba^ 25 ; Lucky and Unlucky Days, 27 ; Wedding Festivities, 27 ; The Procession, 28 ; Waiting for the Bridegroom, 29 ; The Ceremony, 30 ; Death Customs, 31 ; Almsgiving, 31 ; The Requiem, 32 ; The Procession to the Grave, 32 ; Messages to the Dead, 33 ; The Funeral Service, 33 ; The Funeral Feast, 33 ; Mourning, 34 ; The Kaddlsh Prayer, 34 ; Burial in the Holy Land, 35 ; The Adventures of a Corpse, 35 ; Jewish Cemeteries, 38 ; '* The Stone of the Angels," 39 ; Beliefs with regard to Future Life, 39; Fatalism, 41 ; Curious Superstition, 41 ; Prayer for the Sick, 41.
viii ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
JUDAIC WOMEN : THEIR CULTURE-BELIEFS AND FOLK-BELIEFS.
The Talmud, 42 ; Angels and Demons, 43 ; Jewish Paganism, 43 ; The Six Hundred and Thirteen Precepts, 43 ; Clean and Unclean Food, 44 ; Ham-eating Jews, 46 ; Ablutions, 47 ; Sabbath Observances, 47 ; The Eve of the Sabbath, 48 ; The Invitation to Elias, 49 ; Public Worship, 49 ; Amusements, 49 ; A Sabbath Day's Journey, 50 ; Adam and the Sabbath Day, 50; Fasts and Feasts, 51 ; "Destined" Food, 51 ; The Feast of the Passover, 52 ; Searching for the Leaven, 53 ; Paschal Viands, ^4 ; The Day of Atonement, 56 ; The Feast of Tabernacles, 57 ; Visit to a Jewish House, 58 ; The Feast of Purim, or " The Lots," 60 ; Anecdote of Rabba and Rabbi Zira, 61 ; The M'zuzdhj 62 ; Talmudic Magic, 64 ; Charms for Nose Bleeding, 65 ; For Hydrophobia, 66 ; For Rain, 67 ; Against Death, 67 ; Exorcising Demons, 67 ; The Evil Eye and its Antidotes, 68 ; Angels and Demons, 69 ; A Bride Bewitched, 70 ; Freaks of the Demons, 71 ; Borrowed Superstitions, 71 ; The Brmclie^ 71 ; Dreams, 72 ; A Dervish Detective, 73.
CHAPTER IV.
JUDAIC WOMEN : THEIR FOLK-POESY— FOLK-TALES.
Character of Jewish Folk-tales, 75 ; Legends connected with the Tomb of King David, 75 ; The Story of the Pasha's Dagger, 76 ; The Pious Washerwoman, 78 ; How the Jews obtained Rain from Heaven, 81 ; The Story of Rabbi Akiba, 84 ; The Fire in the Ark of the Covenant, 86 ; The Chief of the Demons, 88 ; Ashmedai and Kiifg Solomon, 89 ; " Thou for Me, I for Thee," 92.
CHAPTER V.
D&KMiH WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE — STATUS AND OCCUPATIONS,
AND CULTURE- AND FOLK-BELIEFS.
Rise of the Sect, 95 ; Sabathai S^vi, its Founder, 95 ; His Teachings, 96 ; His Marriage, 96 ; Nathan's Proclamation of Him as the Messiah, 97 ; Sabathafs Success, 98 ; His Imprisonment, 99 ; His Perversion to Islam, 100 ; Diinm^hs at Salonica, loi ; Sabathai's Second Advent, loi ; Sub-Sects, 102 ; Character of the Community, 102 ; Houses and Temples, 102 ; Dress, 103 ; A Dilnmeh Wedding, 103 ; The Diinmeh Type, 103 ; Education, 103 ; Endogamy, 104 ; Domestic Ceremonies, 105 ; Moslem Observances, 105 ; Dogmas of the Dunmehs, 106 ; Their KaUy or Temples, 108 ; Enmity of the Jews, 108 ; Other Mosleniised Israelites, 109.
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix
PART ni.— THE MOSLEM WOMEN.
CHAPTER I.
KORDISH WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE— STATUS AND OCCUPATIONS.
Appearance, 113; A Kurdish Beauty, 114; European Admixture, 114; Peasants and Warriors, 115; Kurdish Encampments, 115; Indepen- dent Character, 116; Struggles for Liberty, 116; Dwellings and Furniture, 117; A Tribe on the March, 119; Food, 119; Dress, 120; Propriety of Manners, 121; Social Morality, 121; A Thrilling Adventure, 122 ; A Young Amazon, 124 ; Social Status of Kiirdish Women, 124 ; The Pasha's Lesson to his Wife, 125 ; Women's Part in Politics, 128 ; Settling with the Tax-Collector, 129 ; Education, 129 ; The Yezidis,
130-
CHAPTER II.
KCBDISH WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY CEREMONIES.
Betrothal, 131; Weddings, 131; The Tc?iopeef or National Dance, 131; Kiirdish Music, 132 ; Yezidi Weddings, 134 ; Kurdish Funerals, 134 ; Yezidi Funerals, 135 ; '* The Questioners," 135.
CHAPTER III.
KCBDISH WOMEN : THEIR CULTURE- AND FOLK-BELIEFS.
The Kiirds indifferent Moslems, 137; Unpopularity of Theologians, 137; "The Greedy MoUah," 138 ; "The Mollah taken at his Word," 138 ; "The Prophet and the Ang6l," 140 ; Popularity of the Dervishes, 141 ; A Famous Kiirdish Saint, 141 ; Dervish Remedies, 142 ; Beverence for Christian Saints, 142 ; Khidhr-Elias, 142 ; K^rdi8h Superstitions, 143 ; JSheytSf 143 ; The Religion of the Yezidis, 143 ; The Good and Evil Principles, 144 ; " King Peacock," 144 ; The Melek TaooSj 144 ; Adora- tion of the Sun, 146 ; Vicarious Penance, 147; The Sacerdotal Order, 147; Magical Practices, 148 ; Moslem Enmity, 149 ; " The Mollah and the Robbers," 149 ; The Yezidi Temple, 150 ; Pilgrimages, 151; Moslem Schismatics, 152 ; American Missions, 152.
CHAPTER IV.
KORDISH WOMEN : THEIR FOLK- POESY — FOLK-TALES.
Variety of Kurdish Stories, 154 ; " The Three Brothers and the Dev," 155 ; "The Legend of the Owl," 161; " How the Fox Wooed the Daughter
X ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
of the Pasha of Egypt," 163 ; " The Fox, the Eagle, and the Wolf," 167; " The ArmeDian and the Dervish," 169 ; '* The Maiden Champion," 174 ; " Saltan Murad and Siso the Shepherd," 179 ; Nasr-ed-Din Hodja, the Jester of Timour, 183 ; *' The Adventures of a Cooking Pot," 184 ; " Nasr-ed-Din and the Beggar," 185 ; ** Nasr-ed-Din and the Corpse," 186 ; " How the Hodja lost his Quilt," 188.
CHAPTER V.
CIRCASSIAl^r WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE AND BELIEFS.
The Emigration of the Circassians, 190 ; " Circassian Wolf," 191 ; Sale of Daughters prohibited, 191 ; Tribesmen and Serfs, 192 ; Dress, 193 ; Hospitality, 193 ; Education, 193 ; Marriage by Capture, 194 ; Religion, 196.
CHAPTER VI.
CIRCASSIAN WOMEN ; THEIB FOLK-POESY — FOLK-TALES.
Messrs. St. Clair and Brophy's " Circassian Ballad," 196 ; *' The Poor Man in the Country of Ali Vahshi," 196 ; " The Swallow as the Friend of Man,*' 203.
CHAPTER VII.
YOROK WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE AND CEREMONIES, AND
CULTURE- AND FOLK-BELIEFS.
Obscurity of their Origin, 207; Appearance, 208 ; Tribal Government, 208 ; Dwellings and Furniture, 209 ; Food, 209 ; Dress, 210 ; Polygamy, 210; Occupations, 211; Betrothals and Weddings, 211; Infant Mor- tality, 212 ; A Turiik Funeral, 212 ; Religion, 212 ; Folk-beliefs, 213 : Legend of the Origin of the Yiiriiks, 213.
CHAPTER VIII.
ALBANIAN WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE— STATUS AND OCCUPATIONS.
Description of Albania, 214 ; Albanian Struggles for Liberty, 215 ; Dwell- ings, 217; Appearance, 218 ; Dress, 219 ; Cosmetics, 220 ; Social Status, 221 ; Two Albanian Amazons, 222 ; Ali Pasha and his Mother, Khamko, 222 ; Her Death, 224 ; All's Sister Shainitza, 225 ; A Terrible Expiation, 225 ; All's Wife, Emineh, 227; Her Death, 228 ; Blood-feuds, 228 ; Respect for Women, 230; The Legend of the Clement!, 231; Social Morality, 233 ; A Tragedy, 233 ; Exogamy, 234 ; Succession, 234 ; The Levirate, 234 ; Divorce, 235 ; Patriarchal Customs, 237; Family Ties, 238 ; Amusements, 238 ; Language, 239 ; Education, 240.
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER IX.
ALBANIAN WOMEN : THEIB FAMILY OEREMONIKS.
•
Birth Ceremonies, 242 ; Exclasion of the Father, 243 ; The Mother's Recep- tion, 243 ; Ihganikf the Day of the Fates, 243 ; Fire Observances, 245 ; Naming the Child, 245 ; " The St. Nikolo," 246 ; Early Betrothals, 247; Wedding Customs in the Towns, 247; The Dunti^ 248 ; The Bride's Toilet, 250 ; The Festivities, 251 ; Taking Home the Bride, 252 ; Wedding Songs, 252 ; Unveiling the Bride, 255 ; Final Ceremonies, 255 ; Marriage Customs of the Highlanders, 257; Faneral Observances, 258 ; Lively Sorrow, 258 ; Visits of Condolence, 259 ; Dirges, 259 ; The Procession, 263 ; The Kokiete, 264 ; Wailing at the Grave, 264 ; The Faneral Feast, 264 ; The Death of an Exile, 265 ; Mourning, 265.
CHAPTER X.
ALBANIAN WOMEN: THEIR CULTUBE-BELIBPS.
The Three Creeds of the Albanians, 266 ; Their Conversion to Islam, 266 ; Lax Moslems and Lax Christians, 267; The Festival of Our Lady of Scutari, 267 ; Religious Fanaticism, 269 ; Bektashi Dervishes, 270 ; Cloistered Life, 271.
CHAPTER XI.
ALBANIAN WOMEN : THEIB FOLK-BELIEFS.
The Albanians probably Pelasgo- Aryans, 272 ; Survivals of Nature- worship, 272 ; The ** Oath of the Stone," 272 ; Supemals, 273 ; ViUu^ 274 ; Djiiut, 275 ; The MatUUa^ 275 ; The Ore, 276 ; The KmUdiidra, " Dogsuckler," and Liouvia, 276 ; Personified Diseases, 276 ; The Dev^ 277 ; The Dragoua^ 278 ; Tailed Men, 278 ; The Vittdre^ 279 ; Vampires, 280 ; The Lotigat, 280 ; Hidden Treasures and their Guardians, 281; Suggested Origin of Blood-feud, 283 ; Folk-remedies, 283 ; " Unspoken-over" Water, 284 ; Cure for Rheumatism, 284 ; For Ringworm, 285 ; For the Bite of a Tarantula, 285 ; Charm against Barrenness, 285 ; Against Infant Mor- tality, 286 ; Sacrifices, 286 ; Charm against Locusts and Cockchafers, 286; Against Mortality among Cattle, 287; For Good Luck on a Journey t 287 ; Stones on Trees, 288 ; Omens and Auguries, 288 ; Drawn from Domestic Animals, 288 ; From Wild Animals, 290 ; From Birds of Passage, 290; Parallels of English Superstitions, 291 ; A Calendar of Superstitions, 291 ; The Winter Solstice, 292 ; Christmas, 292 ; Fire Ceremonies, 293 ; St. Basil's Day, 294 ; Epiphany, 294 ; St. Tryphon'n Day, 295 ; " Sewing up the Plague," 296 ; Gheg New Year's Day, 296 ; Charm against the March Sun, 296 ; Driving out the Snakes, 297 ; *' Old Mother Winter,'* 297; Easter Observances, 297; St. John's Eve, 298 ; The New Moon, 298 ; Lucky and Unlucky Days, 298.
xii ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII.
ALBANIAN WOMEN : THEIB FOLK-POESY — FOLK-TALES AND FOLK- SONGS.
Researches of Von Hahn, 299 ; M. Dozen's Collection, 299 ; Why Mohammed prohibited Pork, 300 ; Origin of Proverbial Sayings in Mythical Stories, 300 ; How the Devil made the Wolf, 301 ; The Devil Chained, 301 ; The Myth of the Cuckoo, 302 ; Traditions of Tribal Origin, 303 ; Parallels in Greek and Albanian Folk-tale, 304 ; '* The Liouvia and the Beauty of the Earth,*' 305 ; ** The Maiden who was Promised to the Sun," 314 ; '* The Story of the Child," or, "The Fates," 319 ; " The Three Brothers and the Three Sisters," 327 ; ** Mosko and Tosko," 336 ; Albanian National Songs, 339 ; Insurrection of Ibrahim of Scutari, 340 ; Gheg Ballad, 341 ; Tosk Song, 343 ; Skanderbeg, 343 ; Gheg Lullabies, 344.
CHAPTER XIII.
TATAB WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE AND FAMILY CEBEMONIES.
The Tatar Immigrations, 346 ; Character, 346 ; Appearance, 347; Industry, 347; Food, 348 ; Dress, 348 ; The Afshahs and Bosdans, 349; Tatar Encampments, 350 ; Wedding Ceremonies, 350 ; Funeral Ceremonies,
353-
CHAPTER XIV.
GIPSY WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE AND BELIEFS.
Similarity to Western Gipsies, 355 ; Antipathy of the Turks towards them, 356 ; Turkish Legend, 356 ; Moslem and Christian Gipsies, 358 ; Nomads and Sedentaries, 358 ; Occupations, 359 ; Food, 359 ; Family Cere- monies, 360 ; "Canons written on Cabbage Leaves," 360 ; Gipsy Witches, 361; Fortune-telling, 361; " The Feast of the Cauldrons," 362.
CHAPTER XV.
GIPSY WOMEN : THEIR FOLK-POESY — FOLK-TALES.
M. Paspatfs Researches, 363; "The Riddle," 364; "The Story of the Bridge," 369 ; " The King's Son and the Daughter of the Dervish," 370 ; The Grateful Vampire, 378.
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii
CHAPTER XVI.
OSMAKLI women: SLAVE WOMEN — SULTANAS, FAVOURITES, AND
MENIALS.
Illegality of Circassian Slavery, 382 ; Slavery indispensable to Harem- System, 382 ; Cruelty of the Initial Stage, 383 ; Imperial Palaces, 384 ; Dolma Bagtch6, 384 ; Yahlis^ 385 ; The Sultan's Household and its Organisation, 385 ; Adjemis and Kalfas^ 387; Ladies of the Imperial Household, 388 ; An Impei^ial Visit, 389 ; A Gueuzdi^ 389 ; A Discarded Favourite, 389 ; The Sultanas, 391 ; Besmi Sultana, 391 ; Imperial Princesses, 392 ; The Valide Sultana, 394 ; The First Lady of the Treasury, 395 ; Famous Valid^ Sultanas, 396 ; The Sult-an's Foster Mother, 397; Occupations and Amusements, 398 ; Intrigue, 399 ; Ex- cursions, 400 ; Court Etiquette and Discipline, 401.
CHAPTER XVII.
OSMANLI WOMEN: SLAVE WOMEN — DOMESTIC SLAVES.
Private Traffic in Slaves, 403 ; Lady Dealers, 404 ; Training of Slaves, 404 ; TchibovMjis and Kahvehdjis^ 404 ; A " Magic Shirt," 407; Slave Wives, 408 ; Slave Children, 409 ; Adoption of Slaves, 410 ; How Besmi Sultan was Adopted, 410; General Good Treatment of Slaves, 411 ; Exceptions, 412 ; Two Little Runaways, 412 ; A Tragic Story, 414 ; Negresses, 414 ; Infant Mortality, 415 ; A Negro Association, 415 ; Yavroube, the Negro Divinity, 416 ; The Kolbashif or Priestess, 417.
CHAPTER XVIII.
OSMANLI WOMEN : THEIB FAMILY LIFE — HOUSES, PERSONAL
APPEABANCE, AND DBESS.
The Turkish Quarters, 418 ; Houses, 419 ; Konaks, 420 ; Internal Arrange- ments, 421 ; Furniture, 422 ; Innovations, 425 ; Insect Pests, 425 j Personal Appearance, 426 ; An Osmanli Beauty, 427 ; Dress, 428 ; Manners, 431.
CHAPTER XIX.
OSMANLI WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE— STATUS, MARRIAGE,
AND DIVORCE.
Polygamy, 433 ; Monogamy more General, 434 ; A Visit to a Polygamous Household, 434 ; A Dervish Neophyte, 439 ; Vulgar Notions about Harems, 439 ; The Superior Legal Status of Moslem Women, 441; Divorce, 442 ; The Custody of Children, 443 ; Position of the Mother, 443 ; Care of Parents, 444 ; Reason for the Seclusion of Women, 444.
xiv ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
NOTE BY THE EDITOR.
MOSLEM AND CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE- LAWS.
I. The Five General Classes of Marriage Laws and Forms of the Family, 446. 2. The Distinctive Provisions of the Moslem Marriage Law, 448. 3. The Rightlessness of Women under the Christian Marriage Law, and its Result, 450.
CHAPTER XX.
OSMANLI WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE— OCCUPATIONS, AMUSEMENTS, AND EDUCATION.
Early Rising, 453 ; The Children's Breakfast, 454 ; Daily Duties, 454 ; Meals, 456 ; A Luncheon Party, 456 ; Taking a Tit-bit, 457 ; Rank in Turkey, 458 ; The Grand Vizier's Lady, 459 ; A Reception, 459 ; ** Backstair " Influence, 461 ; An Eniancipated Lady, 461 ; Amusements, 463 ; Shop- ping, 463 ; Pic-nics, 465 ; At the Sweet Waters of Asia, 466 ; The Public Baths, 467; Decadence of Oriental Culture, 468 ; A Turkish Girl's Examination, 468 ; Her D^ut, 470 ; European Governesses, 470; Middle Class Education, 471.
CHAPTER XXI.
OSMANLI WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY CEREMONIES.
Birth Ceremonies, 472 ; Precautions against Peris, 473 ; Naming the Baby, 473 ; The Mother's Reception, 474 ; Exorcising the Evil Eye, 475 ; The Bath Ceremony, 476 ; Circumcision, 477; Early Marriages, 480 ; In Search of a Bride, 480 ; The Betrothal, 482 ; The Du^hun^ or Wedding Festivities, 483 ; Decorating the Bridal Chamber, 483 ; Taking the Bride to the Bath, 484 ; The Kena Ceremony, 485 ; The Bride's De- parture, 487; Belabouring the Bridegroom, 487; The First Interview, 488 ; The Feast of Sheep's Trotters, 489 ; Subsequent Festivities, 489 ; No " Old Maids," 489 ; Funeral Ceremonies, 490^ Moslem Resignation, 490 ; Deathbed Bequests, 491; The Couch of Ease, 491; A Dead Body Conscious of Pain, 492 ; The Procession to the Grave, 493 ; The Burial Service, 494 ; ** The Questioners," 495 ; The Funeral of Kera Kadin, a Dervish Lady Saint, 496 ; Prayers for the Dead, 496 ; Mourning, 497.
CHAPTER XXII.
OSMANLI WOMEN : THEIR CULTURE- AND POLK-BELIEFS.
/
/Women in Islam, 498; The Prophet's Wife, Khadija, 499 ; FaziPs Elegy, \ 500 ; AMsha, 501 ; Observances required of Women, 501 ; Hafiz, 502 ;
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. xv
Ramazan, 502 ; The Bairam, 503 ; Almsgiving and Hospitality, 504 ; The Qurb&n Bair&m, 505 ; Illuminations at Constantinople, 506 ; Pil- grimages, 506 ; Women Dervishes, 507 ; The Stork's Welcome, 507 ; Djins and Peris, 508 ; The Eo-Sahihi^ 509 ; Magical Practices, 509 ; Spiritual Remedies, 510; Dervish Charms, 510; Magic in the Koran, 511; The Prophet Bewitched, 511; Alphabetical Charms, 512; The " Slaves of the Letter," 512.
CHAPTER XXIII.
OSMANLI WOMEN : THEIR POLK-POESY — POLK-TALES.
Character of Osmanli Folk-poesy, 514 ; ** Saint Solomon and the Sparrow,'' 514; "TheTrophet and the Cat," 516; ** The Partridge and the Sons of Ali," 517; " Hadji-Ephfaim Teuvetlu," 519; "The Magician and his Pupil, '* 521; " The Woodcutter and Fortune,'* 524.
CHAPTER XXIV.
OSMANLI WOMEN: POETESSES OP THE RISE, DECLINE, AND PALL OP
THE EMPIRE.
Poetesses of the Rise, Zeyneb and Mihri, 528 ; Zeyneb's Education, 529 ; Ode to the Sultan, 529 ; Latifi's Reply, 531; Kiraali Zad^^s Criticism, 531 ; Mihri, 532 ; Her Critics, 533 ; Odes of Mihri, 534 ; Her Poet- suitors, 535 ; Poem of Mihri, 536 ; Epigram of Zati, 536 ; Epigram of Mihri, 537; SidqT, 537; Her Works, 538; Her Sufi Mysticism, 528; Ode of SidqT, 539 ; Fatima, or ** Ani," 539 ; Verse of Ani, 540 ; Fitnet Hanum, 540 ; Mttseddes of Fitnet, 540 ; Hlbetulla Sultana, 542 ; Her Tragic Fate, 542 ; Her Death Song, 543 ; Love Song of HibetuUa, 543 ; Leyla Hanum, 544 ; Chronogram of Leyla Hanum, 544 ; Concluding Remarks, 546.
CONCLUDING CHAPTERS BY THE EDITOR.— THE ORIGINS OF MATRIARCHY.
CHAPTER I.
A OENSBAL THEOBT OF HISTORICAL OBIGINS.
1. General Characteristics of Current Theories of Historical Origins, 549.
2. The New Facts of which the New Hypothesis is a Generalisation, 551.
3. The Results of Research ignored by Current Theories, 554.
4. The New Method, which is the Correlate of the New Hypothesis, 557.
5. General Characteristics of the New Theory of Historical Origins, 559.
xvi ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE MABRIA6E FOLK-LORE ABOVE-COLLECTED.
PAUE
General Classes 563
Section I. — Observances of Patriarchal Marriage,
1. Family Usages — Patriarchal 565
2. Marriage Sanctions — (i) Race-identity 566
(2) Contract 568
(3) Assent 568
3. Wedding Ceremonies — Supernalist 570
ft ))
Section II. — Survivals of Matriarchal Marriage,
1. Family Usages— Matriarchal 572
2. Marriage Sanctions— (i) Non-Kinship 575
(2) Capture 577
(3) Consent 578
3. Wedding Ceremonies — Zoonist 581
Section III. — Incidents of Swan-maiden Marriage.
1. Family Usages. — Gynaicocratic 583
2. Marriage Sanctions — (i) Race-difference 585
(2) Achievement 586
(3) Obedience 588
3. Wedding Ceremonies — Totemist 589
General Results 591
CHAPTER IIL
A DEDUCED THEORY OF MATRIABCHAL 0BI6INS.
1. The Untruth of the Promiscuity Postulate of Current Theories
2. The Consequent Inadequacy of the Explanations Offered
3. Solution of the Problem by the Fact of a Conflict of Races .
4. The Verification of this Solution by Further Explanations .
5. The Results for a Scientific Conception of Human History
595
599 603
606
611
THE WOMEN OF TURKEY
PART II.
THE JEWISH WOMEN
A
CHAPTER I.
JUDAIC WOMEN: THEIR STATUS AND OCCUPATIONS.
The Jews of Turkey belong chiefly to the two sects of the Sephardim and the Ashkenazim. The former includes all the descendants of those who, on their expulsion from Spain, found refuge in the Ottoman Empire; the latter, those of the earlier settlers in the country. They form considerable communities in all the cities and larger towns, but are seldom found established in the villages of the interior, agriculture not being one of their industries. The great Jewish centre in the Ottoman Empire is Salonica, where they form the majority of the popula- tion, their numbers being variously estimated at from 60,000 to 80,000. A colony of Jews appears to have been settled in this city from very ancient times, local tradition says from the time of Alexander the Great. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1493 caused so great an influx at Salonica as to convert the former comparatively insignificant colony into the largest in existence. Here, more especially, the overwhelming numbers of the immi- grants appear to have completely absorbed the native element ; and the Judseo-Spanish idiom, which they brought with them, and which is written
4 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
in Hebrew chara<*ters, is now used both as the verna- cular and literary language by the Jews throughout Turkey. Like the other subject races of the countpy, however, they are polyglots, making considerable use of Italian, as well as of their ancient Spanish, among themselves, and of Turkish and Greek in their re- lations with the other races.
Although the Spanish Jews, during the four centuries since their arrival, have in some degree be- come blended with the Oriental Jews, two types may still be recognised. The former, who are distinguished by the name of Sephardim, are of fairer complexion and have much more regular features than the Jews of Eastern origin, the result, possibly, of some foreign strain acquired during their long residence in the West of Europe. They have also the peculiarity of the high instep, as distinguished from the flat foot of the Oriental Jew, which, with their thick lips and certain other features, may, according to Mr. Stuart- Glennie, be due to an original cross with Negroes in their Arabian cradleland.
In places where the Jews form large com- munities, their quarter is almost as overcrowded as a London slum, many families among the very poor occupying one house, a practice which is quite at variance with the habits of the other native races. This is particularly noticeable at Salonica, where the Jewish quarter has encroached on the neighbouring Greek and French quarters ; and side by side with a fine old mansion, belonging to some decayed Greek family, may be seen — though many of these dis- appeared in the recent disastrous fire — dilapidated
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 5
tenements, the upper stories of which are approached by outside staircases, and which teem with men, women and children.* In the other cities and towns of the Empire, however, where the Jews exist in less disproportionate numbers, their quarters present a less squalid and unsightly appearance. The dwellings of the wealthy class naturally occupy the main streets of the quarter, and are spacious and more or less showily furnished, while those of the foreign families — chiefly from Italy — who form the educated class of the community, resemble the houses of the European residents.
The Jewish mahalldh of an Oriental town is naturally, under such circnmstanges, dirtier and more malodorous than the quarters occupied by any of the other races of the country. Indeed, some of the Salonica streets were often, in the summer, simply impassable, so poisonous was the atmosphere, owing to the accumulations of refuse of every description thrown into them from the neighbouring houses. Yet even this state of insanitoriness is said to have its advantages ; for, during the last visitation of the cholera to that city, it was remarked that, while the inhabitants of the highest and most salubrious quar- ters sufiered severely, the lowest and most densely crowded Jewish streets escaped the malady. This curious circumstance was being commented upon by some residents, when one of them exclaimed that he
^ Jewish houses now surround the ancient Hippodrome, the remaining caryatids of which are, according to local belief, females turned to stone by enchantment, and are named by the Hebrews Las Incantcuias. This term is also used locally to designate the quarter at the south-eastern extremity of the city, where these ruins are situated.
6 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
saw nothing extraordinary in it — "The air was abeady so foul and so overcharged with effluvia that the cholera could not get in!'*
Notwithstanding, however, the insanitary condi- tions under which these people live, and the poor food with which they content themselves, chiefly bread, salt fish, and leeks, they are, on the whole, strong and healthy, if we except the skin diseases from which the children, at least, are seldom free. The comparatively low rate of mortality is no doubt attri- butable to their fondness for being out of doors, which characterises all ranks and ages of the population at all seasons of the year, every species of domestic work which can be performed alfresco, being brought into the courtyard or to the doorstep. There the women and girls do their washing, making and mend- ing; the mothers rock their cradles, and comb the little one's heads ; and the children play, quarrel and indulge in their amiable national propensity of stone - throwing. Nor are these occupations of the women by any means performed in silence. The most ordinary conversation is carried on in the loud tones of lively dispute, and all talk at once in such an elevated key that a stranger might well fancy that they were perpetually quarrelling. The latter occupation, too, is by no means rare, and the JudsBO-Spanish Billings- gate indulged in by some Rachels and Rebeccas on the wooden balconies of their houses in our neighbour- hood occasionally became such a nuisance as to call for official interference.
Morally, as well as intellectually, the native Jews of Turkey may be said to be far more backward than
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 7
any of the other races. And perhaps in no country are they regarded with more antipathy, or treated with more contumely than in the Ottoman Empire. All kinds of crimes, both fictitious and real, are attributed to them, from the obligation never to transact business with a Christian or Moslem without cheating him, to the kidnapping of children for their mythical Passover rites. This common and wide- spread vulgar belief obtains great credence among the Moslems as well as among the Greeks of Turkey, and has occasionally led to serious riot and bloodshed, especially at Smyrna, where the Greek population is exceptionally turbulent. During my residence there the coincidence of a Greek child having been found drowned in the river Meles at Eastertide gave rise to a Judenhetze which might have assumed serious propor- tions but for the prompt action of the Ottoman autho- rities in dispersing the rioters. Greeks openly attacked Jews in the streets, and the assailed, not daring to re- taliate, sought refuge in the kha7iSy or courtyards, of the foreign consulates and mercantile establishments. Knowing nothing of the disturbance taking place in town, I happened to come in from Bournabat on that day with two other ladies to assist at a bazaar for the benefit of the schools attended by the children of the English railway employees. On arriving at the ter- minus we were told what had happened ; but having obtained the services of a Turkish orderly as escort, we ventured to proceed to our destination. The streets of the Greek quarter of Ayia Sofia, through which we had to pass, were, however, still in a com- motion, the inhabitants bein<? all at their doors talk-
8 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
ing and gesticulating excitedly. Some of the men, too, bore unmistakable marks of having taken part in the fray of the morning, and one with a broken head was hurried indoors on our approach. An over- excited dame cried out on seeing us that we were " Hebrews (U^patoi) who had got a Turk to protect us/' and would doubtless have fallen upon us had she not been restrained by her neighbours, who, less blinded by fanaticism, recognised us as English.
The Christians generally allow no opportunity to pass of insulting the Jews, who, as a rule, submit humbly to this contumelious treatment, except at Salonica, where their superior numbers give them greater audacity, where Christians are concerned, though even there they are as abjectly servile before Moslems as in other localities. The very mention of a Jew is prefaced by a Greek with an apology for naming the race, as, for instance, "Mc av/niraOia aag (ask- ing your pardon), I met a Jew to-day who," &c. The Moslems, on their side, treat this section of the subject population with unmitigated contempt; manifested, however, not as a rule in acts of personal violence towards them, but in scornful gestures and opprobrious epithets. A forcible example of this feeling is afforded in the story which will be found in a sub- sequent chapter. The grey-legged partridge applies the word TchifuV to the murderers of Hassan and Hussein, the martyred sons of Ali, as it is " the most opprobrious epithet that can be given to any creature of Allah." '
> This common Moslem name for a Jew signifies " mean, avaricious." 1 Seo Chapter on Moslem Folk-poesy.
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 9
The hostility manifested towards members of the Jewish race by their Christian neighbours is attributed by Hebrew apologists to religious fanaticism. I venture to think, however, that it is far more generally called forth by just aversion to the character and habits of the Jews. For, to the Moslem, a Tchifut is much below a Christian in the scale of humanity, although his creed is identical with that of Islam in its absolute monotheism. Indeed, the only people I know to be hostile to the Jews on purely religious grounds are the Roman Catholic natives of the Spanish Philippines, who have never come into personal contact with that race, and to whom, consequently, the Jews are simply the people who crucified Jesus. So fierce, however, is their fanaticism, that I was assured, when at Manilla, that were a Jew, known as such, to land in the island, he would be torn to pieces, or roasted alive, like the effigies of Judas on Good Friday Eve.
But though the status of the Israelitish race is low among the nationalities of the East, the social position of their women in the communit}', especially with regard to personal and proprietary rights, is greatly superior to that of the women of the native Chris- tian races, and, in some respects, to that of the Moslem women. Ignoring this important fact, some writers on the Eastern Jews have bewailed what they assume to be the low position assigned to women by the Talmud, and deplored the fact that they are by that authority exempt, in com- pany with " slaves and children," from the study ot the law, and the rigid performance of its I'itual. If one reflects for a moment on what the observance of
10 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
the two code& of Mosaic and of Oral Law entails upon men, it will at once be evident that a woman could not possibly fulfil half their requirements in addition to her household and maternal duties. The degree of seclusion to which Jewish women are subjected also varies, like that of the Christian women, according to locality and social surroundings. In the towns of the interior, especially in Asia Minor, where they may be subject to insult from their Christian and Moslem neighbours, Jewesses naturally go abroad as little as possible, and, like the women of other creeds, have no social intercourse with the other sex. In the seaport cities, however, of the iEgean the reverse is the case, the Jewish women of Constantinople and Salonica in particular being as much en Evidence as the men.
In Turkey, as elsewhere, the internal affairs of the Jewish community are managed by the Bes/idin, or Rabbinical Court. Their customs with respect to marriage and divorce have much in common with those of the Moslems, but in the matter of divorce are more favourable to the wife. For, though a Jewish wife cannot nominally repudiate her husband, except for a limited number of reasons, she may apply for a divorce to the Rabbinical Court, which, on finding her claim to be well founded, can compel the husband to divorce her. In such a case, besides returning to her her dowry and any other property of which he has had the usufruct, he pays to her a sum of money called the Kethuba, promised in the marriage contract, and to which she would have been entitled on his death. And though a widow does not inherit her husband's property, she has a right, so long as she does not claim
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 1 1
her dowry, or re-marry, to remain in the house of her deceased husband, and be supported by his heirs in the style to which she had been accustomed during his lifetime. A husband, however poor, is bound to support his wife, though she may, if so disposed, add by her own industry to the well-being of the family.
The Eabbinical law, like that of Islam, makes no distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children, so far as rights of maintenance and here- ditary succession are concerned.
Early marriages are the rule among all Eastern Jews, though the obligation of a father to marr}'- his children as soon as they attain what is considered a proper age, is not elsewhere so rigidly enforced as at Jerusalem, where, if a man of twenty remains unwed, he incurs the reproach of " causing the Sh'chinah to depart from Israel." Girls are usually married from the age of fifteen upwards, and youths become husbands at eighteen.* These early marriages naturally conduce to the maintenance of patriarchal customs. For the young couple, being still in a state of pupilage, and unable to provide for their wants, must remain in the paternal home ; and it is no uncommon thing to find several married brothers living with their wives under the roof of their father, who delights in seeing a numerous progeny of grandchildren growing up around him. With those not in affluent circumstances, how- ever, such a custom entails grave anxieties ; and while fulfilling the precept " Increase and multiply," the head of the house is often worn out before attain-
^ At Jerusalem niarriage is entered upon at a still earlier ago, girls being often but thirteen, and youths from fifteen to seventeen, when wedded.
12 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
ing his prime, and sees his wife grown prematurely old before she reaches her thirtieth year.
The Oriental Jews do not recognise the hiw of monogamy laid down by Eabbi Gershom in the twelfth century. As a rule, however, they are practically monogamists, being allowed to take a second wife without divorcing the first for two reasons only — namely, the fact of the latter being childless, or the mother of girls only. The first wife is, however, entitled to refuse to receive the second into the house in which she has been in the habit of residing, and as a second establishment entails a large additional expense, polygamy is, consequently, not common.
The social morality of the numerous Israelitish communities scattered throughout Turkey varies greatly. At Adrianople, for instance, it is very strict, a faithless wife being led for three successive days round the Jewish mahalldh, or quarter, and compelled to stop before every door to be spat upon and abused ; and in others of the smaller towns the morals of the community are closely watched. In the capital, how- ever, and also at Salonica and Smyrna, the reverse is the case, morals being very lax among all classes of the Hebrew population, and irregularities of all kinds being winked at even in the " best society." A few years ago, a Jew belonging to a well-known Salonica family, divorced his wife ; and though it was an open secret that a bribe of ;^2000 from the second husband of the lady had prompted this step, no social odium appeared to attach to him among his co-re- ligionists in consequence of his venality.
The perversion of Jewish women to Mohammedan-
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 13
ism is not of very frequent occurrence, Turks, as a rule, disdaining to marry Jewesses. The following is a peculiar case : — The wife of a Jerusalem Jew enjoy- ing Austrian protection, fell in love with a Turk, and when he brought her before the Pasha, she declared her wish to become a Mohammedan. The loving, and consequently most miserable, husband had re- course to his Consul, and requested him to do his utmost to prevent his wife from becoming a convert to Islam. It happened, liowever, that there had been a flaw in the formality of her declaration — namely, that no dragoman from the Consulate had been present, and it was consequently null. After an interval, in which the lady had been instructed in the Koran by her lover, she was again allowed to make her declaration, all due formalities being observed. But, as the French say, " Souvent femme varie^ fol qui 5 y fie ; " and the capricious fair one now declared that she could no longer respect Mohammed as a prophet, and desired to return to the house of her injured Jewish husband.
The Jewish type is too well known to require special description, and every species of it, both plain and comely, is to be found in the Ottoman Empire, though even the latter are marred by a certain absence of vivacity and gracelessuess of demeanour. The ancient costumes, which all the native Jews continue to wear, are, on the whole, exceedingly picturesque and curious. They vary slightly according to locality'', the head-dress worn at Smyrna being different in style and material from that worn at Salonica, where the costume is particularly ornate. Here, the married
14 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
women put away their back hair in a rectangular bag of silk or stuff, about twelve inches in length and three to four in width, the extremity being orna- mented with embroidery, and terminated by a fringe, frequently of seed pearls. This bag is attached to a kind of cap, which covers the top of the head, round which fine muslin handkerchiefs are twisted, one of them passing under the chin, strings of seed pearls and gold coins being added for full dress. The costume consists chiefly of two or three gowns, or rather long, tight jackets, open from the hips downwards, worn one over the other, and full Turkish trousers. None of these garments meet at the throat, but leave the chest bare, or at most only partially covered by the gauze vests worn by the wealthy, or the coarse cotton gown which forms the under-garment of the poor. The materials vary, from printed cotton to the richest bro- caded silk damask, but the designs are always similar — namely, wide contrasting stripes with flower patterns stamped over them. For outdoor wear, a long pelisse of dark red cloth, lined and trimmed with fur, is added, and over the head is thrown a fine white Turkish towel, with fringed ends, which does not, however, con- ceal the face. Handsome gold bracelets and a neck- lace of pearls complete the costume. Pearls are, indeed, a passion with Salonica Jewesses, who, what- ever their rank, spend all the money at their command in these ornaments for their heads and necks. A Frank lady of my acquaintance, who had a Jewish nurse in her employment, tried to persuade her to save her money instead of thus investing it in a pearl necklace, but to no purpose ; the woman would not be
CHAP. 1.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 15
content until she had some half-dozen or more rows of seed pearls round her throat. These ornaments do not, however, encircle the neck, but are merely some eight inches long, the rest being eked out with ribbon.
The costume of the Jewish women of Constantinople diflfers chiefly from that of Salonica in the substitu- tion for outdoor wear of a short loose jacket, lined and faced with lambskin, swansdown, or squirrel, for the long red pelisse. The coifiure is also much more simple, being merely a yemeni, or large square kerchief of coloured muslin, painted with large flowers, and bordered, like the outer gown, with white oya lace. This lace border, though rather expensive — or perhaps for that reason — is indispensable. One side of the kerchief is brought low over the forehead, completely concealing the hair, and two of the corners fall over the shoulders behind. This head-dress, however, has only been adopted since the interdiction of the preposterous chalebi, formerly worn by the Jewesses of the Turkish capital. It consisted of a large ball of cotton wool, or linen rags, tightly compressed, which was placed on the crown of the head, and held there by one person while another wound round it, in complicated folds, a shawl or scarf, until it attained monstrous proportions, and completely covered the head of the wearer, whom it not only frightfully disfigured, but at the same time exposed to the derisive remarks of both Moslems and Christians. On one occasion, during the vizierate of Reschid Pacha, when the Chief Rabbi was paying his official visit at the Porte, the Minister signified to hiui that he would like to see a reform in the headgear
1 6 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
of the female portion of his flock. It was accord- ingly announced forthwith in all the synagogues that the chalebi was to be generally abandoned, and a simpler coif adopted. Great was the consternation among the matrons of Israel. Rigid conservatives in everything that related to their nationality, the old women wept and lamented as though about to lose a favourite child, and refused to abandon their beloved chalebi. But the Rabbi was bent on carrying out the orders of the Vizier, and he issued an anathema against it, and the hearts of the old women were overwhelmed with sorrow, for they saw in this innovation the presage of the ruin and decay of their sacred religion, and knew that a judgment must surely follow.
And so it fell out. For, not long after this anathema and the consequent abandonment of the chalebi, there appeared one night at one of the boat-piers on the Bosphorus a woman, draped in a grey veil, who stepped into a caique, and when the boatman asked where he should take her, replied, " Row on." Arriv- ing at another scala, he asked if she would land.
" Row on,*' was her only reply, and Jie took to his oars again.
This had occurred several times when it struck the boatman that his caique shot through the water as lightly as if he carried no passenger. At length they arrived at the boat-pier of the Jews' village of Khass- keui, where the grey- veiled woman finally stepped on shore, and, turning to the boatman, said :
" Know that I am the Cholera, and that I have come to punish the Jews because their women have laid aside the chalebi.'^
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 1 7
And a fearful outbreak of cholera in this village was the result.
The coiflPure of the Jewish women of Aleppo is a high, dome-shaped cap, made of silk striped in different colours, worn low on the forehead. From under it depends a quantity of false hair, either plaited in tresses or hanging loose over the shoulders. The fofoz affected by the Israelite ladies of Broussa, like that formerly worn in the capital, is an enormous cushion of parti-coloured stuffs, covered with jewels and strings of pearls, some of which hang in festoons over the cheeks, A veil of white muslin is worn over this out of doors, and the remainder of the dress is concealed by a feridje, or cloak, differing in colour and also slightly in shape from that worn by the Moslem women.
Jewish women are not employed to any great extent as domestic servants by the better class of foreign and Frank residents, the great objection to them being that, no matter how urgently their services may be required, they insist upon spending the whole of the Sabbath in the bosom of their respective families. The lower wages which they will accept alone induces any one to employ them in this capacity. At Smyrna, Salonica, and other places, a number of Jewish women and girls now work in the cotton mills. But the managers of the silk factories at Broussa prefer not to employ them in common with the Christian and Turkish women, as the observance of so many different national holidays occasions, great confusion in carrying on the work.
The amusements of Jewish women of the lower
B
i8 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
class are, like those of the other natives, very few. The frightful noise they consider music, accompanied by equally discordant vocal performances, are among the chief. Such a Jumbi'csh, as it is called, when supplemented by eating and drinking, they seem, however, thoroughly to enjoy. If we add to these the rejoicings attendant upon wedding or circumcision ceremonies, and an occasional promenade, the list is, I think, exhausted.
Female education among the Jews of Turkey owes the little advance it has made, during the past twenty years or so, rather to the efforts of foreign members of the community than to the wealthy natives of the country, the larger section of whom are utterly devoid of liberal ideas and incapable of public-spirited action. This conservative party, who present all the worst features of the Jewish character, make use of the influence which their large fortunes enable them to exercise only to oppose any movement of the opposite progressive party, and are seldom known to use their wealth for the good of their poor neighbours. The establishment of girls' schools in all the large Jewish centres is therefore entirely due to the action of the European " Alliance Israelite," aided by the foreign Jews and the small section who take an interest in the well-being of their brethren. The school of Salonica owes its success in great measure to the able manage- ment and munificence of the Messrs. Allatini, and to the supervision exercised by the ladies belonging to the foreign Jewish families. In it many of the girls of the middle class are fairly well instructed, some of the mistresses being graduates of the Greek training
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 19
colleges. The course of lessons, it is true, is, as yet, but primary, but is quite sufficient for the present, and great attention is paid to plain needlework and embroidery, some very elaborate specimens being annually produced by the pupils.
When the resources of the institution are low, or some exceptional expenditure is necessary, funds are raised by means of an entertainment, in which all the principal inhabitants, both native and foreign, take part. For I need hardly say that the animosity towards the Jews above referred to, is operily manifested only by the lower classes, and as the Jewish and Moslem notables honour with their presence and contributions the annual gatherings and other entertainments for the benefit of the Greek schools, so the better classes of Greeks and the Moslem officials, whatever their private aversion, in their turn patronise the Jewish educational establishments. During the last years of my residence at Salonica, one of the«e enter- tainments took the fprm of a ball at the school- house. Dancing went on in the lower rooms, the apartments of the upper floor were reserved for cigarette-smoking, cards, and conversation, while refreshments and supper w^ere served under the brightly illuminated trees and among the flower-beds of the garden attached to the school-house. The Governor-General, Dervish Pasha, and his son were present, and though they naturally did not condescend to join the dancers, moved about continually among them, and appeared to take a great interest in the proceedings. The Greek Archbishop made a dis- tinguished figure in his tall cylindrical hat and black
20 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
robes, seated side by side with the Jewish Khakham Bashi, or Chief Eabbi, in black and white turban. Ball dresses, however, were conspicuous by their absence ; for, aware that the entertainment was to be partially alfresco, the European ladies had avoided low dresses, and many of the Salonica Jewesses, who had subscribed their liras, presented themselves in their brilliantly coloured native costumes, pro- fusely adorned with seed pearls and gleaming with diamonds.
The work of the Church of England and Scotch Presbyterian Missionaries to the Jews in the East is mostly educational, and the ladies attached to these missions conduct girls' day-schools, which are tolerably well attended. Their pupils, who belong chiefly to the middle classes, receive elementary instruction in their own Hispano-Hebraic tongue, and are also taught French, needlework, and New Testament history. But though the girls become well versed in the Gospel narrative, the influences to which they are ex- posed at home make conversion impossible ; and many parents who could well afford to give their daughters a good secular education, gladly avail them- selves of the facilities afforded by the mission schools for obtaining this education at a chejip rate, without any fear of the religious success of the missionaries. Indeed, a lady connected with the Scotch Mission at Salonica once remarked to me, "that it seemed rather absurd to give an almost free education to girls who could come to school wearing handsome gold jewellery."
Like the Greek and Armenian ladies of the cities, Jewish women of wealth and education devote a con-
CHAP. I.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 21
siderable amount of time and money to the advance- ment of education among their co-religionists and to the amelioration of the condition of the poor. The highly efficient Societe Charitable dea Dames of Con- stantinople distributes blankets and other necessaries to the destitute, provides J)oor girls with dowries, nurses for maternity and other cases, takes charge of orphans, and obtains employment for poor women and girls. And in addition to this and similar organisa- tions, many private efforts are also made to mitigate the extreme poverty which prevails in many of the srreat Jewish centres of the East.
CHAPTER II.
JUDAIC WOMBN: THEIR FAMILY CBREMONIES
Jewesses generally have large families, and even the poorest rejoice in the birth of successive children, especially when they happen to be boys. The Jewish observances at births offer a striking contrast to those of their Christian and Moslem neighbours. On such occasions, relatives and friends gather in numbers round the expectant mother, making every effort to amuse and distract her. In some towns, such as Adrianople, these events are made the occasion of festive gatherings, when friends of both sexes assemble round the sick couch, and pass the time with music and dancing.
The child is named without any special ceremony, and, if a boy, is circumcised on the eighth day. Like the Greek baby before baptism, the Jewish infant must be carefully watched until this ceremony has been performed, and especially on the day preceding it. For Ashmedai, the chief of the Shedivi, or demons, is believed to be lying in w^ait to stifle the child if left for a moment unguarded. Sponsors are chosen, and a feast is prepared, to which a number of guests, in- cluding the Rabbi, are invited. At the table a cover is laid, and a seat left for the prophet Elias, who will it is hoped, honour the ceremony with his presence.
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 23
The godmother carries the baby to the door of the room in which the rite is to take place, and there delivers it to the godfather, who holds it during the ceremony. The child is then carried back to its mother, and the rest of the evening is dedicated by both the mother's and the father's party to that com- bination of noisy revehy and discordant sound com- prehended under the Jewish term jumbmh.
On the thirtieth day after the birth of the first male child the ceremony of " redeeming the first-born *' is observed. The father invites his male relatives and friends, together with the Rabbi, to take part in the ceremony, and the mother receives their women-kind in her own apartment. Before the supper, with which the proceedings commence, is over, the baby is brought to its father, who, transferring it to the arms of the Eabbi, places on a tray a number of silver pieces. Then addressing the priest, he says, " This is my first-bom ; I desire to redeem him according to the commandment of God, written in the book of the Law" (Ex. xiii. 2; Numb, xviii. 16, 17). The Eabbi responds, "Dost thou indeed desire to redeem this thy first-born son ? " to which the father replies, " I greatly desire to redeem my son, and this is the re- demption money according to the law of Moses.'' The Kabbi takes the money and returns the child to its father, who, holding a cup of wine in his hand, returns thanks to God for permitting him to behold this joy- ful occasion. When both the Rabbi and the father have partaken of the wine, the former takes up the tray containing the coins, and, holding it over the baby's head, says, " This is instead of this ; this is in ex-
24 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. ii.
change for this ; this is redemption of this ; and may this child be well instructed in our holy law, enter in due time into the marriage state, and at the last be found full of good works. Amen." The ceremony concludes with a blessing on the child, pronounced by the Eabbi in these words : " The Lord make thee like Ephraim and like Manasseh ; may long life and peace be granted thee; may the Lord keep thee from all evil, and may He preserve thy soul.'*
The supper is then proceeded with, and the evening is given up to festivity, enlivened by the performances which do duty among the Jews for singing and music.
A Jewish girl is under no obligation to marry the person chosen for her by her parents, but enjoys full liberty to reject any candidate for her hand who may be distasteful to her. As there are, however, always some pecuniary matters to settle in connection with the affairs of marriage, the match is usually made up by third parties, parents or relatives, subject to the formal consent of the principals.
In Europe, generally, and also in America, con- formity with civil laws of the country in which members of the Jewish nation are domiciled has led to some modifications of the Hebrew marriage law and the ceremonies attendant upon weddings. In the Ottoman Empire, however, where each community among the subject races regulates its internal affairs without reference to the civil laws of the ruling race, the Jews have retained their
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 25
ancient marriage laws intact, and all the ceremonies attending their fulfilment are still scrupulously observed*
The ceremonies connected with Jewish weddings are three : the engagement, the betrothal, and the final marriage rite.
A betrothal, according to the Rabbinical law, is not merely a promise to marry, but is looked upon as an initial part of the final wedding ceremony. Though this contract in itself is a civil one, it is usual for a Rabbi to pronounce a blessing upon it. The religious part of the ceremony consists chiefly in the recital of certain formulas appointed by the Ritual Law for the occasion, called Berachoih Nissu-iUy or Nuptial Bless- ings. They allude to the divine institution of marriage, and invoke the benediction of the Lord upon the couple. The presence of at least ten persons is required at both a betrothal and a wedding, in order to give the act publicity and solemnity. At the betrothal, the amount of the bride's dowry, the terms of the Kethuba^ and the date of the wedding, are discussed and settled. Great importance is attached by the Oriental Jews to the Kethuba, which, like the NekyaU of the Moslems, hereafter described, settles upon the bride a sum of money, to be paid in case of divorce. Considering the facilities for divorce possessed by a Jewish husband, this arrangement appears a very wise one. For the fact of his being compelled to transfer a considerable sum of money to his wife on divorcing her, proves, as it was intended, an effective means of protecting her against unjust and arbitrary dismissal from her husband's roof.
. 26 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. u.
The following is a translation of the original form of the Ket/iuba, in which the marriage-contracts of the Eastern Jews are, I believe, still written. It confers, as will be seen, considerable personal and proprietary rights upon the wife, and also testifies to the honourable position assigned to her in the family.
" On (date), in the city of , M , the
son of , said to the virgin , daughter of ,
* Be thou my wife, according to the laws of Moses and of Israel, and I will work for thee, and I will hold thee in honour, and will support and maintain thee, in accordance with the customs of Jewish husbands, who work for their wives, hold them in honour, and maintain them. I will, furthermore, set aside the sum of two hundred silver denarii to be thy dowry, according to the law, and, besides, provide for thy food, clothing, and necessaries, and cohabit with thee, according to the universal custom/
"The virgin , on her part, consented to become
his wife. The marriage portion which she brought from her father's house in silver, gold, valuables,
clothes, &c., amounts to the value of . M ,
the bridegroom, consented to add to this amount from
his property the sum of , making in all .
He furthermore declared : * I take upon myself and my heirs the responsibility for the amount due accord- ing to this Ket/iuda, and of the marriage portion, and of the additional sum (by which I promise to increase it), so that all this shall be paid from the best part of my property, real and personal, such as I now possess, or may hereafter acquire. All my property, even the mantle on my shoulders, shall be mortgaged for the
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 27
security of the claims above stated, until paid, now and for ever/
** Thus M , the bridegroom, has taken upon him- self the fullest responsibility for all the obligations of this Kethuha^ as customary in regard to the daughters of Israel, and in accordance with the strict ordinances of our sages of blessed memory; so that this docu- ment is not to be regarded as an illusory obligation or as a mere formal document.
"In order to render the above declarations and
assurances of the said bridegroom , to the said
bride , perfectly valid and binding, we have applied
the legal formality of symbolical delivery."
As the affairs of marriage come under the category of legal transactions, Jewish weddings never take place on the Sabbath day or on festivals. In former times also it was forbidden to celebrate marriages on the anniversaries of great national calamities, such as the destruction of the Temple. Though these days are no longer observed as days of mourning, popular superstition still considers these periods as unlucky for weddings, especially that between Sasach and Shabuoth, with the exception of some single days. This observance has, however, been shown to have had a pagan origin, and to be identical with a belief current among the Romans, that a marriage during the month of May would portend ill luck to the couple.^
The weddings of the Jews, like those of all other
^ Rabbi Dr. Landsberger in Geiger's Jtidische Zeitschrift^ <&c. ; Mielziner, Jewish Law of Marriage, p. 64 ; and comp. Bayle, Pensies Diver aes, § 100 ; and Scott, Third Letter on Demondogy and Witchcraft , p. 104.
2.3 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. ii.
Oriental nations, are very lengthy and tedious pro- ceedings. When residing at Salonica I was invited -to one of these ceremonies, among the other guests at which were the wives of the French and Italian Consuls and several English naval officers. A con- siderable proportion of those that were bidden, in- cluding our party, assembled at the home of the bride, who belonged to one of the wealthiest families among the native Jews. Here we were entertained with music and light refreshments, and for the space of an hour or so joined in the dancing, all of which was of a European character. Presently the bride, who, decked in French finery and loaded with jewels, had meanwhile been seated in state on a divan, was led by several matrons towards the staircase, and all the company followed into the courtyard and thence to the street.
" What is going to happen now ? " asked one ot the officers.
" They are going to take the bride home in pro- cession. Will you join them ? "
" By all means. Let us do the thing thoroughly/' was the reply. So we took our places in the throng, and in the hot summer afternoon followed the bridal party in its slow progress over the excruciating pave- ment and through the dust and smells of various streets of the Jewish quarter, till we arrived at the paternal abode of the bridegroom, a large old house in one of the principal thoroughfares. Entering with the rest, we followed the bride upstairs to the sala^ or great central hall, on the upper floor, and thence into a reception-room at the farther end, which was already
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 29
half filled with Jewesses, mostly in gorgeous native costumes, sitting packed closely together in rows. Of the two alternatives of standing together and sitting apart which immediatel}'' presented themselves, my friends and I, wisely considering the length of the ceremony, chose the latter. That is to say, we ladies did, for etiquette seemed to demand that the male guests should not venture beyond the threshold ; and I fear that I highly scandalised some of the good Hebrew matrons by occasionally exchanging a remark with some of the gentlemen of our party from my seat just inside the door. The bride had meanwhile been conducted to a seat under a canopy of yellow silk, which was fixed to the centre of the wall to the left of the doorway. How long we sat in that crowded room I cannot say ; it seemed hours to me. During this interminable period of waiting for the bridegroom, who had been escorted by his friends to the synagogue for the performance of the customarj'- prayers, the Jewesses sat and fanned themselves, now and then making a whispered remark to each other, and the men walked up and down the sala out- side, smoking cigarettes. At last was the cry raised, " Behold the bridegroom cometh ! " and there was a movement of the men towards the top of the staircase, and a general flutter and stir among the maids and matrons around me. Eoom had to be made for the new arrivals, and in the packing which ensued I presently found myself at the other side of the room; but near the canopy and in a good position for witnessing the ceremon3\ The bridegroom now entered, accompanied by the Rabbi, and by his male
30 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. ii.
relatives, some, like himself, in complete Western costume with the exception of the fez, others in the variously coloured robes of the East, and took his place under the canopy by the side of a table, on which stood a flagon of wine and some glasses. The Eabbi, over whose head was thrown a ialith, or scarf of white silk, took his place on the other side, and the bride, rising from her seat, was led three times round the bridegroom, a ceremony which is held to refer to the saying of Jeremiah that " The woman shall com- pass a man." The pair then stood facing each other opposite the priest. The latter filled one of the glasses from the flagon, and, holding it in his hand, repeated a prayer, alluding to the holy character of the ceremony, and invoking the blessing of the Lord on the couple. This concluded, he handed the cup to the bride and bridegroom in turn, and when each had taken a sip of the contents, the man placed on the girl's finger a ring, saying, " Behold, thou art sanctified to me by this ring, according to the law of Moses and of Israel."
Then followed the tedious process of reading aloud the Kethubaj or marriage contract, before mentioned, which is performed by the priest, all the company standing meanwhile. When this document had been signed by the bridegroom and the witnesses, the Eabbi took another glass of wine, and, holding it in his hand, pronounced over the wedded pair the " Seven Blessings." The contents of this glass were also partaken of by the couple, and an empty glass being then placed on the floor, the bridegroom stamped on it with his boot until it was crushed to
CHAP, n.] . JUDAIC WOMEN. 31
atoms. This ceremony, if reverently and decorously performed, would probably not lack impressiveness. As it was, however, the indescribable flippancy and carelessness with which its details were carried out entirely deprived it of any solemnity, and rendered them simply absurd and meaningless forms. In some parts of the East, Jerusalem for instance, the bride steps three times over a dish containing two live fishes, the emblems of fruitfulness, as the witnesses to the marriage pronounce the same number of times the command, " Be fruitful and multiply."
It is customary for wealthy Jews to make charit- able bequests on their death-beds, for, among them, as among the Moslems, almsgiving is considered one of the most meritorious acts that man can perform. When a person is believed to be approaching his end, his friends entrust to him messages for Abraham,* Isaac, Rachel, Jacob, Joseph, and other patriarchs and prophets. Prayers are also read by his relatives, and at the moment when he is believed to be about to expire, the bystanders, who stand facing him, repeat solemnly the words, ** The Lord reigneth, the Lord reigneth, the Lord shall reign for evermore. Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom for ever and ever. The Lord is the only God. Hear, 0 Israel, the Lord is one God, the Lord is One'* Care is taken that the last words, which contain the essence of the Jewish faith, shall be uttered at the moment when the last breath is drawn.
When all is over, the spectators rend their clothes, and the women give vent to loud wails and cries of
32 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap, n*
distress. The corpse is almost immediately removed from the bed, and laid on straw spread on the floor. The face is covered with a black cloth, and lighted candles are placed at the head and foot, in order that the soul, which is believed to tarry with the body until the first clod of earth has been cast upon it, may do penance by contemplating the tenement of clay in which it has so often sinned. Soon arrive the " washers of the dead," who, after performing the usual ablutionary rites, pour upon the corpse ten measures of water, and carefully pare the finger and toe nails. The body is then completely dressed in linen, and enveloped in a linen shroud, and with the talith thrown over the head, laid in a rough deal coffin. When this has been done, relatives and friends again assemble around the bier, some among whom proceed to relate the events of the life of the deceased in a kind of chant, not scrupling to remind those present of their faults or shortcomings towards him, their groans of contrition not being allowed to inter- rupt the recital.
Paid mourners are only employed by the wealthy, and their frightful cries are continued as the corpse is borne to the burial-ground. The funeral takes place on the day of decease. As the procession takes its way to the cemetery outside the city, every Jew who may pass swells its numbers, and as it advances the coffin is twice deposited on the ground, while the mourners repeat the ninety-first Psalm in order to drive away evil spirits from the dead.* When a Eabbi of repute is being carried to
^ Bvlya^Effendi relates in his Narrative that Sab^h Sab^h, a saint-fool
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 33
the grave, women may be seen to rush forward and place in the open cofRn letters which they believe he will be able to deliver to their departed friends.
Arrived at the cemetery, a funeral address is de- livered by the Rabbi, the mourners walk seven times round the grave, reciting verses from the Psalms. Fragments of earthenware are placed on the eyes and mouth, in order that the deceased may not behold the misdeeds of those he has forgiven on earth, nor accuse his abusers before God. A pillow filled with the sacred soil of Jerusalem is laid under the head, the coffin is covered merely with a rough plank and lowered into the grave, which is then filled up, each of the mourners casting into it three handfuls of earth. The ceremony is terminated by a prayer, re- cited by the officiating Rabbi, in which he acknow- ledges the justice of God even in inflicting death. As each of the spectators turns away, he tears up from the ground a handful of grass, which he casts behind him, and, on leaving the cemetery, he makes the three- fold ablution, repeating meanwhile some verses from the book of Deuteronomy.
The Rabbi and a few intimate friends accompany the mourners home to partake of a funeral supper. At this repast seven different kinds of food, hard- boiled eggs, and fruits are served, and as each course
well known in his day at Constantinople, meeting a Jewish funeral, joined the procession. On the Jews protesting that they were burying one of their own people and not a Moslem, the fool so kicked and abused them that they dropped the coffin and left him master of the situation. Being, however, superstitiously afraid that if a Moslem pass under or over the corpse of one of their race he will become a wizard or a devil, they plucked up courage to return, and made peace with Sab&h at the price of some piastres (Part ii. p. 28).
C
34 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. it.
is placed on the table it receives a separate blessing from the Eabbi.
In the room in which the dead person has breathed his last, a lamp is kept continually burning for seven days and nights, and near it are placed a vessel of water and a towel, that the Angel of Death may with them cleanse his sword which has been stained with the blood of the dead man. The family remain in- doors for seven days, seated, unwashed and shoeless, on the floor, their only occupation being to read passages from the Book of Job, or from the Lamenta- tions of Jeremiah. During this period the men abstain from their usual avocations, and the women from gossiping at their doors, those of the poorest class being supported meanwhile by friends and neighbours, or by the wealthy members of the community. Friends arrive to pay visits of condolence, who greet the afflicted ones with the words : " The Lord comfort you, together with all the mourners of Zion." For thirty-one days subsequent to the death the men of the family go daily to the synagogue to perform the Kaddish. Grreat importance is attached by the Jews to this prayer, which must be recited by a male relative, a son if possible, its performance by a woman being inadmissible. This is one of the reasons why the Jews are so anxious for male issue, and it is not unfrequent for a man to adopt a son solely in order that he may perform the Kaddish for him after his death. If a person leave no heirs, he frequently bequeaths a sum of money to the synagogue in order that the Kaddish may be recited by the Kabbis for his benefit.
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 35
The Jews make no change in their dress on the death of a relative, but merely rend a slit about three inches long in their upper garment. This sign of mourning is worn ten days for a son, and for a father, six weeks.
Burial in the Holy Land is ardently desired by every devout son and daughter of Israel. The reason for this aspiration among the Eastern Jews is the superstitious belief that if one of their race is buried elsewhere, the angels will afflict his body, which will also be compelled to roll underground until it reaches Jerusalem, a journey occupying forty years. In order to compromise the matter, and avert this punishment, a bag of earth brought from the Holy City is, as before-mentioned, placed in the coffin.
The Turks tell the following story of what befell a Jewish corpse on its way to Palestine.
A legal dignitary of Constantinople was one day embarking with his suite for Jerusalem, where he had been appointed kadi, or judge, when, just as the anchor was being weighed, a Jew of his acquaintance came on board with two baskets, which he begged the functionary to take charge of, and deliver to his brother on arriving at the Holy City. The great man con- sented, and told one of his people to look after the Jew's property, and see that it reached its destination safely.
A day or two afterwards, the Kadi's servant took a fancy to see what the baskets contained. Unfastening the canvas which covered the top, he found a quantity of pastourmd,^ and being extremely partial to that
^ Smoke-dried meat.
36 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. ii.
delicacy, he cut off a piece, and ate it with much relish. Indeed, the meat was so appetising that he tried a second and a third piece, and, before long, had finished the contents of the two baskets.
As the ship neared Jaffa, the Kadi's servant began to feel a little uneas}' about the pastourmd, but he consoled himself with the reflection that he could pay the Jew for it, or make up to him the value in some other way. When they arrived at Jerusalem, a Jew appeared at the konak, and asked for the baskets. The Kadi's servant, beckoning him aside, said: " I want to speak to you. A regrettable accident has happened to your property — in a word, I have eaten the pas- tourmd which was in the baskets. Tell me what price you put on it, and how you would prefer to be paid.''
At these words the Jew began to howl and tear his beard, and a crowd collected round them.
" What is the matter, ichifut ? " asked one.
The Jew ceased for a moment his tears and howls, and left off plucking his beard ; then suddenly began to beat his head and pull his beard afresh, and with a shout seized the other by his collar, and haled him before the Kadi, his master.
" What hast thou taken from this man ? " asked the judge of his servant.
'' Effendi'' (Sir), he replied, "this is the Jew to whom the two baskets were consigned. They were full of delicious pastouj^md. I ate a little of it every day, so that by the time we reached Jaffa it was all gone. I have explained the matter to him, and offered him the price ; but this Jew, instead of accepting my proposal, tears his hair and his beard, and drags me to court."
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 37
" Speak, Jew," said the judge ; " what is thy claim ? "
" Effendi,'' replied the son of Israel, " this man has perpetrated a grave crime with what was on the vessel."
" Go on," said the Kadi, " let us hear all about it."
" Effendi^ my father, as your worship knows, was a rich merchant. When ill, and on the point of death, he charged my brother solemnly to bury him at Jerusalem. As the easiest way of transporting his body, he had the flesh separated from the bones, made into pastourmdy and put into baskets. When I re- claimed this paternal pastourmd, I found it all eaten — all, even to the very last mouthful."
" You held your sire cheap," said the Kadi, ** thus to transport him free of charge, like a basket of fruit. The goods were perishable ; and my servant, in offering you the price of the jjastourmdy has done all that could be required of him."
It is no unusual thing for aged Jews of both sexes to leave home and children in order to pass their last days at Jerusalem, and, by dying there, ensure burial in its sacred soil. While I was at Salonica, an old couple arrived there from Uskub with this object, and having known Mr. and Mrs. Blunt during their resi- dence in this inland town, they called at the Consulate- General to pay their respects. The venerable pilgrims were accompanied by all their near relatives, children and grandchildren, who had escorted them thus far to bid them, on embarking, an eternal farewell.
Wealthy and heirless widows often go to Jerusalem, where they purchase the right to reside by the payment
38 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. n.
of one year's income to the Rabbis. On dying they bequeath their wealth to the KhakhamSy in order tliat they may perform for them the Kaddish prayer, and light a taper on the anniversary of their death.
For the majority, however, burial at Jerusalem, though so ardently desired, is unattainable, and happy is he considered who obtains sepulture on the Asiatic shore of Turkey. This is deemed next best to the Valley of Jehoshaphat, for the bodies here interred will rise at once on the Day of Judgment without the before-mentioned painful journey underground. Those who have vowed to make a pilgrimage to the Holy City, or resolved to proceed thither to die, but have been prevented by circumstances, are entitled to burial in Asia. The Jewish cemeteries on the eastern side of the Bosphorus are consequently overcrowded with the graves of those who have been brought from the European shore.
Jewish cemeteries can be at once distinguished from those of the other native races by the large horizontal slabs of stone or marble which cover the graves. These slabs are occasionally adorned with sculptured flowers and gold arabesques in high relief. The representa- tion of a chair seen on some signifies that the occu- pant of the grave is a youth or maiden who died after betrothal and before marriage. No one appears able to explain the connection between the chair and this circumstance. " It is an old custom/' the Jews reply, when asked its meaning.
In the old disused Jewish graveyard of Egrikapou, at Constantinople, is a large circle, surrounded by moss- grown stones, in which, according to tradition, were
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 39
formerly buried " those slain by the Sultan/' Here, as elsewhere, the shadows of legends and traditions play around the tombstones. One, which has a pillar at each corner, occupies such a position that they rise into the air like the feet of an overturned dish. This stone has often been raised and secured firmly in its place ; but on the following morning is found to have returned again to its former position. Another tomb- stone, which covers the resting-place of a pious Rabbi^ bears the impression of two hands on the white marble, and the name of La pietra de los Malachim^ " The Stone of the Angels." The popular tradition says that angels raise up the Rabbi when he wishes to visit the throne of Grod, and let him sink gently down again when he is ready to return to his grave.
With regard to the future life, the Rabbis teach that the souls of those who have kept both the written and the oral law to the best of their ability are con- signed for a period not exceeding eleven months to a kind of purgatory, from which they may be released by the prayers and almsdeeds of their friends on earth. ** Israelites," however, according to one of these autho- rities, " who sin with their bodies, and also Gentiles, descend into hell, and are judged there for twelve months. After the twelve months their bodies are con- sumed and their souls are burnt, and the wind scatters them under the soles of the feet of the righteous. But unbelievers .... who have denied the law or the resurrection of the dead .... all such go down to hell, and are judged for ever."* The Kaddish
* Koth Hoshanahf fol. xvii. i, translated by MacCaul in Hie Old Paths^ p. 298.
40 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap, ii,
prayers, and also the periodical wailings of the women for the dead, are, consequently, performed for eleven months only, as to continue them for twelve months would imply a belief on the part of the mourners that their departed relatives could not be numbered among the righteous. On the anniversary of a death, a taper is lighted in honour of the deceased. The days pre- ceding the Passover are specially dedicated to wailings at the tombs. Grroups of red-cloaked and white- veiled women may then be frequently seen following a dark-robed priest across the wide intervening space between the old battlemented walls and the City of the Dead without, and making their way among the flat slabs whicli mark the resting-places of thousands of departed Israelites. Arrived at the spot they seek, they give utterance to wild cries and wails, which in- crease as their leader recites the prayers and passages of mournful import appointed for such occasions.
The Kaddish prayer is performed once a week at the going out of the Sabbath, that being the hour at which the souls of parents are believed to return to their place of torture, from which they are redeemed by the peti- tion offered in public by a son. During the Feast of Tabernacles mention is made in the evening devotions of the souls of departed parents ; and the following prayer is offered for them on the last day of the Festival : " May the Almighty remember the soul of my honoured father (or mother), who has gone to his repose. For his sake 1 now solemnly vow almsdeeds, and in reward of this may his soul be bound up in the bundle of life with the souls of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel, and with the rest
CHAP. II.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 41
of the righteous men and women who are in Paradise. And let ns say Amen.*'
The Jews are, like the Moslems, fatalists, and believe that a set time is appointed for every man to die. In connection with this belief, however, the strange notion is current that it is possible to elude the stroke of the Angel of Death by changing the name of the sick person whom he appears to threaten. For instance, if it has been decreed that Isaac is to die, the sentence cannot be carried out upon him if he is no longer Isaac, but Moses. Prayers are, however, offered for the recovery of the sick, both in public and private. Dr. Frankl, in his interesting account of the Eastern Jews, describes a most affecting scene which he witnessed in a Jerusalem synagogue. A woman, whose daughter was dangerously ill, accompanied by two friends, all draped in the white robes of mourning, stood before the open ark, the matron's extended arms supported by her two companions, while she gave vent to a loud wail of sorrow, followed by a shrieking prayer. The three figures then turned in the direc- tion of the attendant Babbis, and stood as if sculptured in marble, while the mother repeated, in an agonised voice, a number of penitentiar}- psalms.*
^ Jews in the East, p. 107.
CHAPTER III.
JUDAIC WOMEN: THEIR BELIEFS.
The Jews of Turkey, both Sephardim and Ashkena- zim, differ in their religious beliefs from the Jews of the West, not only in being the most bigoted adherents of the doctrines of the Talmud to be found anywhere, but also in observing many rites and usages peculiar to themselves. The Talmud is believed by its devo- tees to be the perfection of divine wisdom, the con- summation of all moral and religious teaching, an emanation of the divine mind, the absolute and unchangeable law, delivered to Moses, and transmitted, unimpaired and unabridged, through the mouths of holy men, who, in later times, and in order that it might not be forgotten or lost, reduced it to writing, and thus perpetuated its testimony in the form of the Mishna (second law), which contains the text, and the Gemarah (accomplishment), which is the only true and infallible commentary on the spoken word. The Babbis are the masters of this sophistical and often cabalistic learning, which, while intermixed with beautiful sentiments, lofty moral principles, and apt illustrations, contains many superstitious utterances and meaningless fatuities. The Talmud also incul- cates a belief in the Manichean doctrine of the exist- ence of good and evil spirits, who regulate and control
CHAP, m.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 43
the affairs of men. Adonai and Ashmedai, angels and demons, represent the prevailing influences which direct human actions and the government of the world. The air is said to be peopled with a host of malevolent beings, known by the name of Shedim^ a word calculated to inspire fear and terror, and which is never pronounced, the expressive substitute of ** those without " being used in its place. It is also taught that every man has two attendant spirits as his constant companions, the good angel hovering on his right, and the malevolent demon on his left^ and that his actions are prompted either by the one or the other of these spiritual influences. The super- stitions which have grown out of this doctrine are naturally extremely fanciful, and most degrading to the intellect. In fact, one may, I think, truthfully say that the Eabbinical writers have converted the pure monotheism of Moses and the Prophets into a paganism equal, in its adoration of holy men and angels, its propitiation of demons and its magical practices, and its rigid observance of fast, feast, and Sabbath days, to that of the most ignorant member of the Greek Orthodox, or Roman Catholic Church.
The moral and religious instruction imparted to children is comprised in the " Six hundred and thir- teen Precepts," which they begin to commit to memory when six years old, and are expected to be perfect in on arriving at eight years of age. Two hundred and forty-eight of these precepts are affir- mative, and three hundred and sixty-five are nega- tive, in conformity with the construction of the
I
44 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iii.
human body, which, according to some cabalistic calculation of the Rabbis, is composed of the former number of members or organs, and tlie latter number of veins. Of these precepts, all, save three, may be transgressed, if life would be endangered by strict conipliance with them. A sick person may, for in- stance, partake of nourishing food on a fast day, or one in health may perform a forbidden action on the Sabbath, if by so doing he might save the life of another. These three, however, which are the negative precepts relating to murder, adultery, and denial of the faith of Israel, may on no account be set aside.
In the matter of "clean" and "unclean" food the Eastern Jews are particularly strict, and the preparation of every article of consumption is regu- lated by many strange and complicated rules. All flesh is said to be trephah, or unclean, unless killed by a specially qualified butcher and in the presence of a Eabbi, who certifies that the animal is without blemish, A knife of a peculiar shape is used for the purpose, and the windpipe must be nearly severed with not fewer than two, and not more than three, strokes, otherwise the flesh is not ko&her^ or clean, and cannot be eaten by Israelites. Certain parts only of the animal are acceptable as food, and all fat must be removed before the meat is cooked. A duty on all kosher meat is imposed by the Eabbi of each community, and the proceeds are applied to charitable purposes and to the support of schools. This tax falls very heavily on the poor, who, at Salonica especially, form the majority, and attempts
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 45
have been made, from time to time, to obtain its removal or modification. Such, however, is the tenacity with wliich ancient customs are adhered to that the opposition of the more conservative party in the city has hitherto prevented any change in this respect.
Not meat only, however, but cheese, wine, oil, and various other provisions are not considered kosher un- less made by Israelites and pronounced such by a Eabbi. Butter is not much used, and only purchased when packed in skins, with the hairy side turned in- wards. Vegetable produce, on the other hand, is not held to be defiled by Gentile contact unless it has been previously moistened with water, oil, honey, milk, wine, or blood. Rules relating to the order in which certain kinds of food may be eaten are also strictly observed. Cheese, milk, or butter, for in- stance, must not be partaken of after meat until six hours have elapsed, though meat may be eaten imme- diately aft^r such dairy produce. Bread, also, must not be mixed with milk, unless the loaves are made of a special shape, lest it should inadvertently be eaten with meat. In order also to carry out the more rigidly the forced interpretation given to the Mosaic command, " Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk,"^ the utensils used for cooking and serving meat and milk must be kept strictly separate. Bread made by Grentile hands does not appear to be accounted absolutely unclean, although the Jews, as a rule, have their own bakeries. A deaf aud dumb, but exceedingly sharp, little Jew boy, who used to help
* Deiitv xiv. 21.
46 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
in the garden at the Consulate-General, would, I remember, run delightedly home with a portion of a loaf, though he steadfastly refused all other food oflfered to him from the kitchen.
Great attention is also paid to keeping separate viands intended respectively for fast and feast days, any contact between the two rendering both unlaw- ful.
Sesame oil enters largely into the composition of the majority of Jewish dishes, and consequently ren- ders them quite unpalatable to Gentiles generally. This oil is also used for making pastry, which has also the drawback of being exceedingly heavy and indi- gestible. Indeed, so objectionable are their viands considered by the other races, both native and foreign, that the Jews, when entertaining guests belonging to other creeds, provide for them dishes to which they are more accustomed. The hospitality of the native Jews is, however, as a rule, extended only to members of their own race, and not very frequently even to them.
The Israelites of Salonica and Constantinople, who are of foreign extraction, are, strange to say, much more emancipated from the Mosaic law than are generally those of the reformed Jews of the West of Europe. Their customs differ very little from those of the European residents, whose society they court. Though conforming to national usages in certain re- spects, such as abstaining from business on the pro- scribed days, they are by no means very observant of fasts or of the national prejudices with regard to kosher food. Indeed, we had often occasion to
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 47
remark with amusement that ham, which was seldom seen 6n the tables of our Gentile friends, was never absent from the menu at a Jewish dinner or supper, and was much more largely patronised by the hosts than by their Christian guests.
When washing the hands before and after meat, the Rabbinical Jews arc careful to pour the water three times over them, for, according to the teaching of the Talmud, an evil spirit or demon rests upon the hands, and is only exorcised by the magical number of three.
The Jewish Sabbath, as is well known, begins at sunset on the evening of Friday. Long before this hour arrives, the house is swept and garnished, food is cooked for the following day, and the children are washed and dressed. These duties performed, and the Sabbath garments of her husband laid out for him, the mother turns her attention to her own toilette, combs and plaits her hair, washes, and changes all her clothes ; pockets are emptied of every article, even to the handkerchief, which, if not altogether dispensed with for twenty -four hours, is worn round the waist as part of the girdle, and so does not come under the category of '* things carried." Tobacco, too, is laid aside, for to smoke would be to " touch fire," which is unlawful on the Sabbath day. Clothes which have been worn on working days can never again form part of the Sabbath attire, which must be uncontaminated by labour, an obligation founded on the injunction ** that thy Sabbath apparel be not like thy daily clothes." If there is a daughter in service in some Christian family, nothing will prevent her
48 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
returning home to spend the Sabbath in the bosom of her family, permission for which is the more readily given as she would do no work in the interval if she remained. No cooking is, of course, done on the holy day, nor are fires lighted by the family. If the weather is cold, a gipsy is hired to light the mangals^ or braziers, and attend to them during the day. The lighting of the Sabbath lamp is the signal for all worldly occupations to cease.
At Salonica numbers of the men repair before sun- set to the Meidan, or Common, outside the Vardar Grat«, where, collected in large groups, they murmur their evening prayers in . concert. The women, however, take no part in these open-air devotions, nor do they usually attend the vesper service in the synagogue, which ushers in the Sabbath. Arrived at home, the father and sons find the table laid ready for the even- ing meal, and upon it the customary salt, wine, and couple of loaves. After washing his hands, the head of the house recites part of the second chapter of Genesis, and then pronounces the doxology, " Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord our God, King of the Universe, who hast created the fruit of the vine." As he does so, he fixes his gaze on the Sabbath lamp, for the Talmud declares that, if during the week a man have lost a fiftieth part of his sight, he may recover it by looking at this holy light. A curious ceremony now follows, which illustrates one of the strange beliefs which the Jews, in common with the Moslems, entertain respect- ing the prophet Elias. The father takes in his hand a cup of wine, and making a tour of the house, drops some of its contents on the floor of every room, say*
CHAP, ni.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 49
ing, " EHas the prophet ! Elias the prophet ! come quickly to us with the Messiah, the son of David ! '' This invocation, tliey say, is so acceptable to the prophet that every family in which it is uttered is placed under his special protection, and blessed with blessings of increase. Then follows the second dox- ology, " Blessed art Thou, 0 God, who hast hallowed the Sabbath day in Israel ; " after which the speaker tastes the wine and hands the cup to the others, who also utter a blessing over it before partaking of its contents. He then takes up one of the loaves, and making a sign over the other, says, ** Blessed art Thou, Lord our God, who hast provided bread for the earth." The bread is then distributed to the family, who now sit down to their usual evening meal.
Attendance at public worship is not required of un- manied girls, but the matrons invariably go to the synagogue on Sabbaths and festivals. According to the Eastern custom, common to all creeds, they do not mix with the men in places of public worship, but sit apart in a gallery, screened from view by a wooden lattice. They take, too, but a passive part in the service, except during the hagbaha, or elevation and exhibition of the Thora rolls, when, while the men stand up, the women behind their screen spread out their arms towards the sacred parchments, and throw kisses to them with an expression of fervent devotion.
The public service over, the remainder of the day is passed in feasting, and the usual amusements of lounging, promenading, and gossiping, with jumbush — music and singing — in the evening. Their prome- nades do not, however, exceed the prescribed '* Sabbath
D
5© THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. ni.
day's journey," namely, 12,000 handbreadths, or 2000 yards. So many and so minute are the directions given by the Rabbinical writers for the scrupulous observance of the proper distance, that a whole tractate in the Mishna is devoted to this subject alone.
The Sabbath day is personalised by the Eabbis under the name of " The Queen," or "The Bride," and its advent is greeted with the cry of " The Bride Cometh ! The Bride cometh ! '* In one of the Pente- costal prayers the Sabbath is glorified as follows : *' It is the end of all work, above and beneath ; it is accounted the seventh among the days ; the first con- vocation of seasons ; holy to the Lord of Hosts ; a glorious holy Sabbath to those who rest thereon ; it redeemed the first created man from judgment ; he chanted a song, and appeased the wrath of Grod." These two last circumstances, not mentioned by Moses, are related at length in the traditions of the Eabbis, and throw some light on the reason for the idolatrous character of the reverence paid to the Sabbath by the Talmudic Jews. At the seventh hour of the day, on the eve of the Sabbath (i.e., about one o'clock p.m. on Friday), the first Adam was introduced into Paradise by the ministering angels, who sang his praises. But between the suns, on the eve of the Sabbath (^.e., between sunset on Friday and sunrise on Saturday), he was driven out, and went forth ; and the angels called to him, saying, "Adam, being in honour, abideth not : he is like the beasts that perish." The Sabbath day then came, and interceded for Adam. " Lord of the earth," it said, " in the six days of the creation, nothing in the world was killed, and wilt Thou
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 5 1
begin with me ? Is this my sanctification, and is this my blessing, as it is said, 'And Grod blessed the seventh day and hallowed it/ " Therefore, by the merit of the Sabbath day, Adam was delivered from the judg- ment of hell. And when Adam saw the power of the Sabbath, he said, "It was not for nothing that the Holy One — whose Name be blessed — hallowed, and sanctified it." So he began to sing and chant to the Sabbath day Psalm xcii., which, according to Rabbi Tshmael, was forgotten in the generations until Moses came and restored it. Another version adds that the Sabbath protested against the honour paid it by Adam with the words, " Dost thou sing hymns to me? Bather let us both sing hymns to the Holy One — whose Name be blessed."
The Mosaic ordinances with respect to the fasts and feasts, as contained in the Pentateuch, are sup- plemented by numerous other observances enjoined by the traditions of the scribes. This Oral Law requires that every single day appointed as a holiday by Moses shall be supplemented by another, which is to be ob- served with equal strictness ; it has added other fasts and feasts to the number commanded by the ancient law ; and it regulates with extreme rigidity every detail of ritual by which all these ordinances are to be accom- panied. No food, for instance, which has not been specially intended to be consumed on a feast day, may be touched, however great the necessity. Eggs laid on such days are not to be used until the morrow, and if inadvertently put in a dish or basket with others which have been " destined " for consumption on the feast day, the whole supply becomes forbidden food, as
52 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. in.
it is diflScult to distinguish one egg from another. All sorts of extraordinary quibbles and evasions are, however, set forth in the Rabbinical books in order to enable men to comply strictly with the letter of the law, while avoiding any inconvenience to themselves. The observance, too, of the fasts and feasts, and especially the latter, often becomes a real hardship to the poor, who, besides being obliged to refrain from work, are bound to procure, in honour of these festivals, luxuries which they can ill afford.
The first great event of the Hebrew religious year is the double Feast of the Passover and of Un- leavened Bread. On the eve of the thirteenth day of the first month, according to the Jewish calendar, the male members of the family repair before sunset to the synagogue, where a special service is performed. On their return, the head of the house proceeds to make the formal search for leaven. Taking in his hand a lamp, spoon, and goosequill, he cries, " Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord, King of the Universe, who hast sanctified us with Thy commandments and bidden us to remove the leaven ! " In dead silence he visits every room in the house, gathering up as he goes the pieces which have been purposely placed in his way on tables, sideboards, window ledges, &c. ; then proceeding to the place where the leaven, which is a portion of the dough from the last baking, is usually kept, places it, together with the pieces of bread he has collected, and the lamp and spoon, in a linen cloth. This done, he says, "All manner of leaven which may remain in my house and which I have not seen, shall be null, and accounted but as the
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 53
dust of the earth." The following minute directions are given in the Talmud respecting the search for leaven : — " On the evening before the 14th of Nisan, before the coming out of the stars, they are to search for the leaven by the light of a single wax taper ; and when the time draws near it is unlawful to do any
work, or to eat, or to study If, after the search,
he sees a mouse come into the house with leaven in his mouth, it is necessary to searcli a second time. And although he should find the crumbs about the house, he is not to say the mouse has eaten the bread long since, and these are the crumbs ; but, on the contrary, he must fear lest it should have left the leaven in a hole or a window, and that these crumbs were there before ; he must therefore search again. If he find nothing, then he must search the whole house," &c. &c. And again, '* If a mouse enter a house with bread in his mouth, and a mouse also go out of the same house with bread in his mouth, one may conclude that this is one and the selfsame mouse. But if the one that entered was black and the one that went out white, a search is necessary," &c. &c.* Early on the following morning all leavened bread, fermented liquor, and all vessels which have at any time contained either, are removed from the house. All cooking utensils which are used during the. feast must either be new, or kept from one Passover to another. New clothes are always worn for the first time by the poor at this festival.
On the first day of the Passover it is incumbent on the first-born son of every family to fast, in cora-
' McCaul, TJie Old Paths, pp. 81, 82.
54 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. in.
memoration of the deliverance of the first-bom of the Israelites from the last of the plagues of Egypt. This duty is performed by proxy in the person of the father until his son has attained the age of eleven ; and if the father be dead, it devolves upon the mother.
The feast commences at sunset on the fourteenth day. On returning from the synagogue, the table is laid with the special Passover viands. On the central dish, which is covered with a napkin, is placed a large cake of unleavened bread, marked with three notches called Israelite. This is covered with another napkin, on which is placed a second cake with two notxjhes, and above this, and also separated by a napkin, is a third, marked with one notch. Duplicates of these cakes are kept in reserve for use in the event of the first getting broken. In another dish is the shank-bone of a shoulder of lamb, on which is a small piece of meat, and a hard boiled egg. The first commemorates the Paschal lamb, and the second signifies that it was roasted whole. The third dish contains a lettuce, or horseradish, and some bitter herbs. Brine, or vinegar, signifies the passage of the Red Sea, and a confection of almonds the brickmaking in Egypt. All the family, including the servants, sit down together, for all were equal when in bondage to the Egyptians. A glass of wine is poured out for each person, and also for Elias, who, as the forerunner of the Messiah, may appear among them during the evening. After the formula of question and answer as to the meaning of this ceremony has been gone through, each person eats a morsel of the lamb of the size of an olive, and a portion of the cake and almond paste. The usual supper is
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 55
then served. At its conclusion grace is said and the glasses are refilled. The doors are thrown wide open, and for a few minutes absolute silence is observed, iis it is during this interval that the advent of Elias is looked for. The head of the house then prays : " Pour out Thy wrath upon the heathen who have not known Thee, and upon the kingdoms which have not called upon Thy name ; for they have devoured Jacob and laid waste his dwelling-place ; pour out Thine indigna- tion upon them, and cause Thy fierce anger to over- take them ; pursue th&m in wrath and destroy them from under the heaven of the Lord/' A fourth glass ot wine is now poured out, Psalms cxv., cxvi., cxvii., cxviii., and cxxxvi. are repeated, and various benedic- tions and sacred songs conclude the ceremonies of the inauguration of the Passover.
The following and two last days of the feast are held sacred, but the four intervening days are con- sidered common, and on them the usual worldly avocations are pursued. When the stars shine out on the eighth day the Feast of the Passover is at an end.
The great fasts of the year occur between the fourth and seventh months, or from July to Sep- tember. The three weeks intervening between the fasts of the fourth and fifth months are observed as periods of mourning, during which no marriages or rejoicings of any kind take place. From the com- mencementy until the eighth day of the latter month, the month of Ab, the Talmudist Jews abstain from meat and wine, and on the ninth day from food of any kind, and also from water. Before sunset on the eve of this day, on which is commemorated the
56 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. m.
taking of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple, the head of the house, seated on the floor, eats the "meal of mourners" — bread strewn with ashes — and then repairs to the synagogue. The service on this occasion, as well on the following morning, consists chiefly of chanted laments for the lost glory of Israel, and plaintive aspirations for its restoration.
On the Day of Atonement, which is kept on " the tenth day of the seventh month,'' or in the latter end of September, the Jews also in a similar degree " afflict their souls," and abstain from all manner of work. In the evening the head of the house per- forms the ceremony of atonement, first for himself and subsequently for the various members of his family in turn. For each man or boy, a cock is provided, and for each woman or girl, a hen. The father, holding the bird by the legs, repeats part of the hundred and seventh Psalm, and the two verses from Job : " If there be a messenger with him, an interpreter, one among a thousand, to show unto man his upright- ness, then He is gracious unto him and saith. Deliver him from going down to the pit: I have found a ransom."* Then, swinging the cock round over his head, he says, " This is my substitute ; this is my commutation ; this cock goeth to the death in order that I may be gathered, and enter into a long and happy life and into peace." When the whole of this formula has been thrice repeated, the man lays his hands on the cock as in the action of sacrifice, and then proceeds to perform the same ceremony for the
^ Chap, zxxiii. 23, 24.
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 57
other members of the family, slightly changing the words to denote the respective persons. At the con- clusion of the act of atonement mention is made of departed parents, and prayers are offered for them.
At Salonica the strange ceremony is performed by the Jews, on the Day of Atonement, of casting their sins into the sea. A belief is also current in this city that the Messiah will arrive there by water, and His coming is anxiously looked for by the crowds who flock to the quay on this day.
The beginning of the Feast of Tabernacles is observed five days after the Fast of the Atonement. In the interval, the booth or arbour, which is its chief feature, is erected on the terrace which forms part of the roof of every Eastern house, all the family taking part in the work. Both the walls and roof are lightly constructed of branches or reeds, as the stars must be seen through, and the booth is usually just large enough to contain a table, at which the household can be accommodated. The house is swept and garnished * in preparation for this festival, as for the Passover. All the domestic utensils are scoured and polished, and the kitchen is limewashed, and everything made spot- lessly clean. No work is done on the two first days of the feast, save the necessary cooking; so while the pater- familias and the children are busy building the taber- nacle on the terrace, the careful housewife is occupied in the kitchen concocting special dishes for the festival.
On the eve of the feast it is customary for all to attend a special service in the synagogue. On return- ing home, the family gather for the first time in the tabernacle, and ofler prayers and praises to the
58 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
Almighty. The evening meal, of which all the house- hold partake together, is then spread, and before sitting down to it, the head of the house takes a cup of wine in his hand, and pronounces a prayer over it. When he has tasted the wine, the cup is handed round, and all drink from it in turn. The two wheaten loaves, which stand on the table covered with a napkin, are then blessed, cut up, and the pieces distributed to the family. On the morning of the next day, which is the first day of the feast, the family repair to the synagogue, the head of the house carrying in his hand a citron, and branches of palm, myrtle, and willow. The service on this occasion is very singular and in- teresting. During the chanting of the prayer, called Hallely which forms part of it, the men wave the palm and other branches over their heads, from right to left and from left to right, backwards and forwards, and in all directions.
As Moslems and Jews visit Christians of their acquaintance on the occasions of their great national festivals ; the latter return the compliment on the days of the principal Moslem and Hebrew holidays. These visits are more especially de rigueur among people hold- ing an official position, and are a great tax upon the time, and often on the patience, of the foreign Consuls, and also of their wives. On one occasion, when I ac- companied the wife of the French Consul to a Jewish house on the afternoon of this day, I saw the citron and palm branch displayed on a side-table in the scUa^ and was informed that the possession of a speci- men of the fruit by each family was considered so necessary at this feast that, when it was scarce, large
CHAP. lu.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 59
sums were paid by the wealthy for consignments from Egypt, whence the principal supply comes, and dis- tributed to the poor.^ Being invited to inspect the tabernacle, we were conducted up a little attic stair to the terrace, passing on our way through the large airy kitchen, with its arched cooking-stove on one side, and, on the other, rows of well-scoured and shining copper pans, of various shapes and dimensions, ranged against the newly lime washed walls. The booth struck me as a rather mean construction, being com- posed, not of " boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, the boughs of thick trees and willows ol the brook," but almost entirely of long, withered-look- ing reeds from the vast marshes at the mouth of the Vardar (the ancient Axius), a few miles from the city. Nor do the Eastern Jews, strictly as they observe the ritual of their religion generally, literally " dwell in booths seven days." For, though to sleep in the tabernacle is held to ensure all manner of blessings, so great is the dread of malaria that an occasional siesta only is taken in it. And, in answer to our various inquiries, we gathered from our hostess and her daughter — who, dressed in their rich and brightly coloured holiday garb, had accompanied us to the terrace — that it was deemed sufficient to sup under its shelter during the seven days of the feast. But the booth apart, a more gorgeous banqueting hall could hardly be imagined. Above, the star-spangled canopy of an Eastern sky ; behind and around, the roofs, domes, and minarets of the city, the upper part
^ Mr. Stuart-Glennie suggests that it may be derived from the similar Assyrian emblem.
6o THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
bounded by the citadel and the old battleraented walls ; and before ns, the broad expanse of the land-locked bay, on the distant shores of which loomed the dark mass of Olympus and the Cambunian hills.
The feast of Purim, or " Tlie Lots," commemorates the confounding of Haman's devices against the Jews and the triumph of Mordecai, as recorded in the book of Esther. It derives its name from the circumstance of Haman having cast lots to ascertain which day in the year was most unlucky for the Jews, in order that he might the more easily carry out his designs against them. The two " days of feasting and joy, and of sending portions one to another, and gifts to the poor *' are preceded by one of fasting and propitiatory prayers in the synagogue, because Esther and all the Jews of Shusan fasted for three days before she ventured to present her petition to Ahasuerus the king. On this day the whole book of Esther is read aloud in the synagogue from a parchment roll called the Megillah. An extraordinary importance is attached to this book, the reading of which, on this occasion, must be per- formed or listened to by every member of the com- munity— man, woman, and child. The well-known Hebrew commentator, Maimonides, declares of it that **A11 the books of the prophets and all the Hagiographa, except the roll of Esther, shall pass away in the days of the Messiah ; but it is as perpetual as the five books of the Written Law and the constitution of the Oral Law, which shall never cease." ^ At the conclusion of
1 HUchoth MegiUah, translated in The Old Paths (pp. 53, 54) by Mr. McCaul, who asks, " Why do the Rabbis pronounce it worthy of preserva- tion while they contemplate without emotion the loss of all the other books 7 We cannot possibly discover, unless it be that it furnishes more
CHAP, iii.l JUDAIC WOMEN. 6i
the reading, blessings are pronounced on the names of Esther and Mordecai, and curses on those of Haman, Zeresh, and their sons. The two days of the feast are devoted to rejoicing and merrymaking; all work, fasting, or sorrow being rigidly forbidden. According to the Talmud, " A man's duty with regard to this festival is that he should eat meat and prepare a suit- able feast according to his means, and drink wine until he be drunk and fall asleep in his drunkenness." And Eabbinical writers have decreed that ** A man is bound to get so drunk at Purim as not to know the difference between * Cursed be Haman I ' and * Blessed be Morde- cai ! ' " That this injunction was litera.U}'' carried out by the Hebrew Fathers will appear from the following little Talmudic story.
** Babba and Eabbi Zira were celebrating their Purim entertainment together when Eabba got drunk, and he arose and slew Eabbi Zira. On the following day he prayed for mercy, and restored his friend to life. The next year, Eabba again proposed to Eabbi Zira to keep Purim witLi him ; but the Eabbi replied, *No, my friend, miracles happen not every day.' "
The obligation of celebrating this festival by such gross excess does not, fortunately, it would appear, extend to women. For, as 1 have elsewhere had occasion to remark,^ drunkenness is not a vice to which any of the Women of Turkey are addicted.
Among the Mosaic ordinances which the Eabbis
gratification to the spirit of revenge .... and the book of Esther is an account of the revenge which the Jews took upon their enemies, not as in the destruction of the Canaanites, fulfilling the commandments of God upon His enemies, but taking personal and individual revenge on their own." ^ Vol. i., The Christian Women, p. 299.
62 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
have converted into charms and talismans, may be mentioned that which enjoins the writing of the com- mandments on the door-posts. The Mzuzah, as this is called, is written on a small piece of parchment rolled up and enclosed in a metal cylinder, which is fixed in a groove cut diagonally in the door-post of every room in Jewish houses. A small square hole, sometimes covered with a piece of glass, is made on the outer side of the cylinder, through which the word Shadai (The Almighty), written on the reverse of the scroll, can be seen. The Mzuzah must be written so as to form only a single column, and the parchment must be ruled. Care is taken that the word Shadai comes precisely at the back of the name of God, the syllables of which are reversed, and form the word Vheyah (" It shall come to pass ") instead of Yahvek, the Hebrew form of Jehovah. Various cabalistic explanations are given by Eabbinical writers for inscribing the word Shadai on the outside of the Mzuzah^ as, for instance, in the book Zahan on Deut. vi., in which the following passage occurs : " Come and see V hey ah, the sacred name reversed, and Shadai is inscribed without, opposite that name ; so that within is V^heyah, without is Shadai^ in order that the Son of Man be preserved on every side, within and without." It is also customary to v/rite in reverse order, opposite to the words " The Lord our Grod is one Lord," the *' letters of the three angels," Coozuy B^muclisaz^ Coozu} Among the blessings attached to reverence for the M^zuzah are the following : —
* These letters follow, in the Hebrew alphabet, those with which " The Lord," &c., are written.
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 63
"Whosoever attendeth to the Mzuzah, his days and those of his children shall be prolonged, and of him who doth not, they shall be shortened.
" By reason of the Afzuzah, the destroyer shall have no admittance into your houses.
" The Lord is thy keeper, the Lord is thy shade upon thy right hand, for the M'zuzah is on thy right hand as thou goest into thy house."
Unlike the phylacteries and fringes, the use of the M'zuzah is as obligatory on women and children as on men. On entering or leaving a room or the house, the M'zuzah is saluted by a touch or kiss, and some Jews, it is said, before leaving home in the morn- ing for the day's avocations, invoke the angels with the words, " In your names, Coozu, B*muchsaz, Coozu, may I go and prosper ! " The Mzuzak is also looked upon as a charm or talisman, which keeps away evil spirits and other supernatural beings. If a member of the household is troubled with bad dreams, or anv other ailment, he or she immediately concludes that something is wrong with the Mzuzah^ and sends for a scribe to examine it. For so long as this fetish is perfect in every detail, it is held to represent the Almighty and the Slichinahy and angels are believed to guard the room and its occupants ; but if it becomes imperfect in any way, God and the angels withdraw from its vicinity, and evil spirits obtain access to the door. Scrolls which are considered worn out, and have been replaced by new ones, are carefully kept, to be buried with some eminent Rabbi.* If a Jew, when
' There is a niche in the Synagogue of Zion, at Jerusalem, in which torn prayer books, loose leaves or pieces of the £ible« or Talmud, are
64 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
changing his abode, is to be succeeded by another of his race, he leaves his talismans behind ; but should a Gentile be the next occupant, he is permitted to remove them.* In a house at Kallemeria, which Mr. Blunt rented one summer from the Khakham Bashi, or Chief Eabbi of Salonica, we found one of these Mzuzahy which had, I suppose, been overlooked when the others were removed.
As I have already mentioned, the Talmud incul- cates a belief in every kind of superstition, including astrology, black and white magic, and the efficacy of amulets and charms. " Life, children, and a livelihood," say the Eabbinical writers, " depend not upon merit, but upon the influences of the stars ; "" and, as an illustration of this, the story of the birth of Isaac is thus curiously explained by them, in a commentary on Grenesis xv. 5 : " God said to Abram, Go forth from thy astrology, for thou hast seen in the stars that thou art not to have a son — that Abram is not to have a son, but Abraham — that Sarai is not to bear a child, but Sarah. I call you by another name, that thus the influence of the stars ma}^ be changed." *
The belief that a man's character and destiny are determined by the day of the week on which he came into the world has its counterpart in a rhyme which I remember to have heard in my childhood in the
deposited ; when this is full the contents are carried by the Rabbis in procession, accompanied with drums, fifes, and singing, to the vallej of Jehoshaphat, where they are interred at the foot of Absalom's tomb.
^ Compare Margoliouth, Modern Judaism Investigated^ chap. xi.
2 Moed Katon, fol. 28, col. i (McCaul, Jlie Old Paths^ p. 175).
^ Ihid. p. 180.
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 65
north of England.' According to the Talnind, the dispositions and fortunes of mortals depend, to a great extent, on the character of the work performed during the week of Creation on the day corresponding to that of their birth. Thus, a man born on Tuesday will be given to anger, as on that day the waters were divided ; one born on Wednesday will be rich and profligate, for on the third day the herbs were created ; one born on Thursday will be wise and possessed of a retentive memory, for then the lights were created ; one born on Friday will be rich and benevolent, for the fowls and fishes then came into existence ; while he who was born on the Sabbath will die on the Sabbath, " for on his account the holy day was pro- faned." Another and more propitious reading, how- ever, of the fate of "Sunday's child," says that he will attain to an eminent degree of holiness, and is thus more in accordance with the English folk-rhyme above referred to.
The Jews of the East, like the Moslems and Chris- tians, have recourse for the cure of every ailment, physical and moral, to charms of the most varied and incongruous nature. Among those in vogue for the treatment of bleeding at the nose are the following. The sufferer must be brought to a priest of the name of Levi, who will write for him the name of Levi
^ I cannot recall the whole of the lines, but they were to this effect :
*' Monday's child's the child of woe,
Tuesday's child has far to go,
Wednesday's child is loving and giving,
Thursday's child must work hard for a living, * * * *
But a child that is born on the Sabbath day Is bonny and lucky, and wise and gay."
E
66 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iii.
backwards, or he nuist get a layman to write for him, also backwards, the words Ana pipi Shila bar Sumko, or some other magical formula. Failing these, he must take a root of grass and the cord of an old bed, with paper, saffron, and the red pith of the palm tree, and burn them together. Two twisted threads of wool, which have been steeped in vinegar, must be rolled in these ashes and put in the nostrils. Another charm for this ailment is to stand with one foot on each side of a small streamlet flowing from east to west, and take up with the right hand some mud from under the left foot, and, with the left hand from under the right foot, twist two threads of wool and insert them in the nostril. Or, again, let some one pour water on him from the spout of a vessel, saying, " As this water ceases to flow, so let the blood of
M , son of the woman N , also cease to
flow."
When a dog goes mad it is believed that the witches are making sport with him, or that he is possessed by an evil spirit, and that a missile weapon alone can succeed in killing him. The charm to cure the bite of a dog so afflicted is to write upon the skin of a male adder the following formula :
" I, , the son of the woman , upon the skin
of a male adder I write against thee, Kanti, kanti, klirus *' (other cabalistic words are sometimes substi- tuted). The bitten person must then cast off all his clothes and bury them in the cemetery for twelve months, and at the end of that period take them up, burn them, and scatter the ashes at the cross-roads. During these twelve months he must drink water
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 67
only out of a brass tube, lest be see in it tbe pbantom form of the demon by which the dog was possessed, and his life be endangered.
If a Habbi should liappen to die at Jerusalem at a time when the rain which annually fills the cisterns has been long in coming, and much anxiety has arisen in consequence, a piece of the dead man's shroud is cut off, dipped in water, and placed in his hand, so that he may not forget to pray for rain when he reaches the other side.
When two deaths occur in one house in the course of the same year, if the deceased are both men a cock is sacrificed, and, if both are women, a hen. The head and feet of the bird are buried, and the flesh is given to the poor.
When children are panic-stricken, sugar is strewn from their beds to a neighbouring cistern, in the hope that the demon who has caused the mischief, and who has a sweet tooth, will follow the track and tumble into the water.
Another method of exorcising demons is by what is called indulgencia, or coaxing, and is employed in the case of a violent shock, or any mental excitement, as this is believed to be caused by some demon having gained the mastery over the sufierer. The patient is washed, dressed in white linen, and laid on a white bed. All kinds of animals, and especially poultry, must be kept away from the house ; and on some occasions the presence of women is considered harmful both to themselves and to the sufferer, who must remain as much alone as possible, eating nothing but bread, butter, and milk, and taking as medicine occasional
6S THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
small doses of pulverised mummy, dissolved in sugared water.
Aji7i rah, the evil eye, is as much dreaded by the Jews as by the Christians and Moslems of the East, and their charms and antidotes against it partake, for the most part, of a similar character. Little bands of gold and silver are often fastened to the caps of children, and when a house is newly whitewashed, five outstretched fingers are painted on the wall. Some of the forms of exorcism resorted to are, how- ever, peculiar to the Hebrew race. One of these is to send for, or visit, a professional exorcist, male or female, who passes a comb or a knife without a handle over the head of the patient, and pronounces at the same time the names of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses. A formula prescribed for this purpose by the Talmud directs that, " If a man fear the pernicious effect of the evil eye, let him place the thumb of his right hand in his left hand, and that of his left hand in his right, saying, ' I, so-and-so, son of so-and-so, I am descended from the race of Joseph, on whom the evil eye had no effect.'" The belief here referred to is based on Genesis xlix. 22, which is rendered: "Joseph is a fruitful bough, a fruitful bough adove the eye,"
Jewish sorcerers, both male and female, profess to have recourse largely to the aid of angels and demons in their magical practices, and for this, too, they find ample authority in the Talmud. According to the Rabbis, the malevolent demons are so numerous that " they stand around us like the trench around the garden bed," and are so frightful that " if power were given to see them, no creature could withstand the
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 69
sight." "Every one of us," says Rav Huna, "has a thousand on his left hand, and ten thousand on his right," and Eabba exclaims that " Want of room at the sermon is caused by them, the wearing out of the llabbi's garments is caused by their rubbing against liim, the bruised legs are caused by them. Whosoever is desirous of proving their existence, let him take ashes that have been passed through a sieve, and let him strew his bed, and in the morning he will see the marks of a cock's claws.^ Whosoever wishes to see them, let him take the inner skin of a black cat, the daughter of a first-born black cat, which is also the daughter of a first-born, and let him burn it in the fire, and pulverise it, and let him then fill his eyes with the dust, and he will see the demons. But let him pour the powder into an iron tube and seal it with an iron signet, lest they should steal any of it, that no evil consequences follow. For Rav Bibi bar Abbai did this, and received an injury, but the Rabbis prayed for mercy on him, and he was cured." *
It is even asserted by the Jews of the East that the spirits multiply b}' propagating their kind, and also that both sexes among them, like the Lamias and Sirens of the Greeks, and the Samodivas of the Bul- garians, are in the habit of falling in love, and forming alliances with mortals. Dr. Frankl records a story which he heard from the lips of an old woman so wedded to her beloved chalebi, or cushion head-dress
' In Hebrew demonology, the cock's claw takes the place of the cloven lioof ascribed in the West to the King of Darkness. See next chapter Athmedai and King Solomon.
- Beraclioth, fol. 6, col. i, quoted by McCaul in The Old Paths.
70 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iii.
above described, that not even the anathemas of the Grand Rabbi could make her relinquish it.
" You know, sir," she began, addressing her master, " the newly married couple so-and-so. Both are young and handsome, and the Lord himself must delight in them. Well, all at once, the young wife ceased to please her husband, and he informed both her parents and his own that he wished to divorce her. As he could, however, assign no reason for this sudden repug- nance to his bride, their relatives decided that they must continue to live together for three months longer. Just one day before the expiration of this period — the day before yesterday, in fact — the sorrowful bride betook herself, in company with a friend, to the bath. While the friend, after the bath, was winding the chalebi again round the head of the young wife, some- thing fell from its folds to the floor, and she imme- diately understood that a Schety an evil demon, who had become enamoured of the young woman, had a hand in the matter, and had, by some magic spell, turned away the heart of the husband. She gave her friend some wise counsel, and burned the object, which was an inscribed piece of parchment. When the wife returned home, her husband addressed her in the most endearing terms, and wondered how it was that she suddenly appeared again to him as graceful and beautiful as before." *
When the Shedim propose to celebrate a marriage feast, they choose a dwelling in a retired and solitary place, and give notice of their intention by hurling stones against the walls, causing the food to disappear
* Jeics in the East.
CHAP, ni.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 7 1
from the table, agitating the wine in the goblet, throw- ing small pebbles into the oil of the Sabbath lamp, placing the new-laid eggs under the cat or the dog, and maintaining generally such a system of annoy- ance as finally forces the occupants to leave the house for a period. It once happened that a man obstinately persisted in refusing the use of his abode for the revels of these mysterious guests. One day he was observed to fall down suddenly, and place himself in such a posture as to produce the impression that he was expecting the bastinado. He then began to roar dreadfully, and to exclaim against the severe blows he received. He appeared, too, to be pricked with knives, yet no blood flowed, and no injury was inflicted on his health. He was now convinced of the folly of resisting the summons he had received, and caused the house to be thoroughly cleaned and prepared for the self-invited guests. For the demons, if they find things dirty and in disorder, do a great deal of damage, but leave everything uninjured if they are welcomed with order and cleanliness. If such a haunted house is passed late at night, strains of music, wild yet bewitching, are heard, and the rhythmical tread of the dancera strikes on the ear, mingled with sounds of revelry and discordant laughter.
But, in addition to the rich heritage of superstitions which has been preserved for the Eastern Jews in the Talmud and handed down to them orally from their ancestors, they have also drawn largely on those of their Moslem and Christian neighbours. Among the apparently borrowed supernal beings is the bnische, who would seem to bear a strong resemblance to the
'^2 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
malicious fairy of the West, and is said to appear in the form of some well-known ^oman. Her mode of procedure is to throw earth, taken from the graveyard, into tlie ears of mothers who have young babes, strangle the latter, and then lay them again on their mothers' breasts. Once a hrusche was caught in the very act by the husband of a woman who had, a clay or two before, given birth to a child. He seized the wretch by the hair, and held her till the oven was made hot, intending to throw her in. While still in his grasp, she appeared to him continually to change her form, now into that of a broom, then into that of a pitcher, and again into that of a cat. When the oven was glowing hot, the good man grasped the hrusche more firmly, with the intention of casting her in, and roasting her alive, when she swore by the Sacred Name that she would never again attempt to injure any living creature. Believing this oath to be binding upon a bricsche, the man released her, and she kept her word. This malevolent being, it is said, obeys a natural impulse, and can only be cured of her evil propensities by having her teeth rubbed till they are blunt, with a pebble fished up from the bottom of a well.
Immense importance is attached to dreams, which are allowed to occupy the waking hours of both Jews and Jewesses to an extraordinary extent. Those which may be realised are divided into four classes — morning dreams, repeated dreams, those concerning other persons, and those which require no interpreta- tion. If a dream fall under any of the first three heads, its subject has no rest until he or she has had recourse
CHAP. III.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 73
to some old wizard or witch who has a great reputation as a reader of visions. Should it be deemed unlucky, the dreamer proceeds to exorcise it by repeating some magical formula in the synagogue ; and if a bad dream is often repeated, the sufferer, as before mentioned, carries his or her M'zuzah to the scribe for examina- tion. Passing one Saturday by the door of an old Turkish witch- wife, who had a great reputation in all branches of her craft, we saw quite a little crowd of customers, all Jews, who were waiting their turns to consult her on some important matter or other. For superstition is a sort of neutral ground on which race-hatreds are so completely set aside that a Moslem woman will not disdain to ask the aid of a Jew sorcerer if his reputation for skill in magic is suffi- ciently high ; and Jews, as well as Christians, fre- quentl}'' have recourse to the good offices of Dervish Sheikhs, whose extraordinary sanctity is believed to endue them with highly supernatural powers. One of these holy men, a sheikh of the Beklashi order at Salonica, enjoys great renown as an expounder of dreams and discoverer of lost or stolen property. On one occasion he was waited upon b}'- a wealthy Jew, from whose house a valuable piece of plate had dis- appeared, and who promised him a handsome fee as the reward of its recovery. Having obtained from his client the names of the persons who had been his visitors on the day of the loss, Sheikh Ali dismissed him with the promise that he should see his property again in a day or two. He was as good as his word, for the piece of plate was shortly restored to the Jew as mysteriously as it had disappeared, and its grateful
74 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. hi.
owner promptly paid the promised fee to the holj^ man. The Sheikh had, no doubt, found means to inform those he suspected of the theft that his curse would fall upon the offender if restitution were not immediately made, and superstition had proved stronger than cupidity.
CHAPTER IV.
JUDAIC WOMEN : THEIR FOLK-POESY.
The folk-poesy of the Eastern Jews — or, at all events, what I have been able to gather of it — has none of the variety, and little of the grace, which distinguish the folk-tales and songs of their Christian neighbours, whether Greek, Armenian, or Bulgarian. Many of the religious legends, both from Talmudic sources and of later origin, are to a great extent cabalistic in character, while those relating to the shrines of holy men present many features common to similar Mos- lem stories. The rest deal chiefly with the Shedim, or malevolent spirits, described in the foregoing chapter, who appear to mortals under the most alluring forms, and tempt them to their destruction.
Although the veneration of the Jews for the tomb of King David is not equal to that of the Moslems, various Hebrew legends exist with regard to it. Benjamin of Tudela, the adventurous Jew who visited Jerusalem in the twelfth century, on his way to China, relates in his Travels * the story of the discovery of this sacred place, which had been made a few years pre- viously, and this legend is quite in accordance with
^ Travels ofJRabbi Benjamin^ Son of JoncJi of Tudela, &€., Gerran's Trans- lation, 1783, p. 75 ; also Bohn's Antiquarian Library, Early Travels in Palestine f d'c, p. 84.
76 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
those current at the present day concerning the resting- place of the poet-king. The following may serve as a specimen :
The Pasha's Dagger.
In ancient times a Pasha of Jerusalem once visited the tomb of King David on Mount Zion. In order to gain a better view of tlie interior, he stooped down over the mouth of the vault, and while in this posi- tion, his dagger, which was set with pearls and dia- monds, fell out of his girdle. He at once ordered a search to be made for it, and a Moslem was accord- ingly let down by a rope. After a few minutes he was drawn up again, lifeless. On this another Mos- lem descended, with the same result, and a third and fourth shared a similar fate.
But the Pasha swore he would have his dagger, though the recovery of it should cost the lives of the entire population of Jerusalem. On this the Kadi said to the Pasha : " Effendi, let not so many of the True Believers become the victims of thine anger. But if thou wilt give ear to thy servant, send to the Khaham Bashi (chief Babbi) for a Jew to search for thy weapon. If he refuse, threaten him with the destruction of all his people. Yet I think that the dagger will be recovered, for the Jews stand well with Nebi Daoud (the Prophet David), and have great in- fluence with him."
The Pasha approved of this proposal, and sent an order to the chief Rabbi to provide a Jew to fetch his dagger from King David's tomb. The godly Eabbi was very much shocked at being commanded to dese-
aiAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 77
crate the tomb of the Kings by authorising any one to enter it; and with tears in his eyes he begged a respite of three days, which was granted.
On his return home, he assembled the whole com- munity, and ordered them to fast for three days. Each day, attended by the men and the children, he marched from the city in the direction of Bethlehem, to recount at the grave of Rachel, the pious wife of the patriarch, the fate which impended over her children. And so for three successive days the Jews fasted, prayed, and wept.
On the fourth day, the Rabbi said to his community, " One must die for all, and enter the tomb of the Kings. Which of you will go ? "
No one volunteered.
" Then we must cast lots,*' decided the Rabbi.
The lot fell upon one of the servants of the syna- gogue, a man of distinguished piety.
*' I am the servant of the Lord," he said, and pre- pared for death by bathing and by immersing his body three times in water. After this, he bade fare- well to his relations and friends and to the weeping community, and then went up to Mount Zion to the tomb of the Kings of Judah.
The Pasha was waiting there with his armed fol- lowers, and the poor Jew was lowered into the vault. The Pasha applied his ear to the mouth of the open- ing to listen, and the hearts of all the Jews who had accompanied the victim were trembling with expecta- tion. After a few minutes came a hollow cry —
" Up ! Up I "
The rope was raised. First there appeared the
78 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
glittering blade of the dagger ; then a hand grasping the jewelled hilt ; then the face of the Jew, pale as death ; then his whole body was drawn up, and the astonished and delighted Pasha recovered his dagger.
From that time the Pasha held the Jews in great honour, on account of the special protection extended to them by Nebi Daoud. The community made great rejoicings on the occasion ; in every house might be heard the sound of feasting and the noise of drums and cymbals. But the poor family of the servant of the synagogue were the happiest of all, for they were loaded with meat and drink, and with presents of gold and silver.
Every one naturally wished to hear about the interior of the tomb of the Kings. But the man kept his own counsel, and imparted what he had seen to no one but the head Rabbi. When surrounded by darkness, he said, there had suddenly appeared the figure of an old man, radiant with light, who gave him the dagger, but uttered no word.
The second legend of King David's tomb has for its heroine
The Pious Washerwoman.
Once upon a time there lived in Jerusalem a pious and virtuous woman, whose husband and children had long been sleeping in the Valley of Jehoshaphat. and who was without kith or kin on earth. She tarried patiently until she too should be carried through the Zion gate to the City of the Dead, and spent much of her time in prayer, and in the observance of all the
CHAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 79
religious duties imposed on her sex. As she had, however, no fortune, she was compelled also to work, and earned a scanty subsistence by washing for the rich. Among others the Sheikh who kept the tomb of Nebi Daoud gave her his linen to wash.
One day, when she had brought back his clothes beautifully got up, as usual, and he was alone with her in the courtyard of the mosque, he said,
" You are an honest woman, and I am disposed to reward your virtue. Would you not like to see the interior of the tomb of Nebi Daoud, which none of your race are allowed to enter ? "
" I should esteem such a favour the highest happi- ness," the woman replied.
"Then follow me."
He walked before her until they came to a door leading to an underground passage, which he opened, and told her to enter. Scarcely had she crossed the threshold, however, when he shut the door upon her, and left her in darkness. He then hastened to the Kadi, and told him that a Jewish woman had stolen into the tomb of Nebi Daoud, which was considered a heinous crime. As soon as he had discovered this, he said, he had at once shut her in, that she might be (delivered up to the punishment due to such an offence.
The Kadi exclaimed in anger :
" By the life of the Prophet, she shall be burned to death I "
Meanwhile, the poor pious woman saw that she had been betrayed by the Sheikh, and that her life was in danger. She threw herself on the ground, and
8o THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
entreated the Lord, for David's sake, to rescue her from the fate which threatened her.
Suddenly there stood before her a venerable old man, and, though she had not seen him approach, she was not startled, neither did she wonder that he should be visible in the darkness which surrounded her. She could only see his outline in a dim, imper- fect light, which did not extend beyond his figure. He took her by the hand, led her through a long dark passage till they reached the open air, at a heap of rubbish, near the synagogue of Ziou, and then said to her :
"Go to thine house, begin at once to wash the linen that is there, and hide what has befallen thee."
Before she could thank him, he had disappeared.
Meanwhile the Kadi, the Mufti, and the Effendis of the city had hastened to Zion, for the purpose of seiz- ing the criminal and burning her. The subterranean chamber was opened and strictly searched ; but of course no one was found in it. The Kadi angrily asked the Sheikh if he was making fools of them ; but the Sheikh swore ** by the life of Mohammed " that he had told the truth, and gave them the name of the washerwoman. The Kadi immediately despatched some of his people to her house. They found her busy with her daily labour ; and, without taking her hands out of the tub, she asked what they wanted with her.
" Have you not been out to-day ? '* they inquired.
" Been out to-day I " she repeated crossly. " I have been working since daybreak, trying to finish my linen, and see what a heap of soiled clothes yet remaiu.s !
.CHAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 9i
These ar6 hard times, and I earn but little; I have no time to go out, or to stand gossiping with you— - been out, indeed ! '*
When the messengers returned and told liow they had found the woman busj- at her work, the Sheikh's report was pronounced by all the oflBcials to be a pure fabrication, which he had invented in order to make sport of the venerable Kadi. There happened to be some dry olive-branches lying about, with which a fire was speedily kindled, and the Kadi ordered the wicked Sheikh to be cast into the flames.
The pious woman now got the linen of the whole community to wash, as every one was anxious to get her to talk about this singular aflair. But she rated them for their curiosity, kept her own counsel, and only on her death-bed divulged her wonderful adventure. She bequeathed to the community at Jerusalem the property which she had earned by her industry, on con- dition that on the anniversary of her death the Kaddish prayer should be offered at her grave by a pious Babbi. And this is done even to the present day.
The following legend will serve as an illustration of the reverence with which the Jews, as well as the Moslems and Eastern Christians, regard the graves of holy men, and of the miraculous powers attributed to their occupants : —
It happened nearly two hundred years ago that, one autumn, the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the neighbourhood were suffering from a serious and pro- longed drought. All were pining for the life-giving rain, but not a- drop would descend from heavea
F
Z2 THE. WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
Moslems, Christians, and Jews spent their time in •prayer, in fasting, and in processions to the tombs of Kachel and of Nebi Daoud, and to the Church of the Sepulchre. But still the heavens remained closed, and their flood-gates would not open.
Then the Pasha sent to the Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem, to the pious old Gralanti — blessed be his name ! — and threatened to banish him and all the Jews from Jerusalem and Palestine, and to destroy their sanctuary, if it did not rain in three days, as the wicked nation of the Jews were alone the cause of the obduracy of Heaven.
" You pride yourselves,*' he said, " on being the chosen people of Allah, and call Him your Father. Prove now, in the hour of your trouble, that He hears your prayer ; otherwise, by the life of the Prophet, I will do as I have spoken."
Great was the dismay of the Jewish community. The Chief Rabbi ordered a three days' fast, and crowds of men, women, and children assembled before the wall of the Temple, weeping and pray- ing.
Towards sunset, on the third day, the Rabbi com- manded the whole of his flock to accompany him on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Rabbi Shimon the Just — blessed be his memory ! — in order there to pray for rain. At the same time, he told them to provide themselves with cloaks, mantles, and shoes, as their return would be through torrents of rain.
Though all were astonished at this prediction, they nevertheless obeyed, and followed their pious leader in solemn procession through Bab-el-Amud, the
CHAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 83
northern gate of the city. When the oflBcer of the guard saw the procession, dressed as if it were raining in floods, he could not restrain liis laughter. But when he was told of the Rabbi's prediction, so little in accordance with the cloudless sky, he flew into a violent passion, and struck the venerable Rabbi in the face. The old man looked at him calmly and solemnly, and then proceeded with his followers to the Valley of Jehoshaphat. Stopping finally at the tomb of Shimon the Just, the Rabbi knelt down on the spot where the head of the deceased lay, and the others knelt around him. Loud and solemn was the sound of their wailings and prayers. But the Rabbi — as was reported by those who knelt next to him — whispered mysterious words into the tomb. The words were so powerful that their hearts trembled, though they could not hear them.
All at once there arose a strong wind, so that the trees on the Mount of Olives shook their branches, and the hitherto blue heavens were overcast with clouds. Heavy drops of rain began to fall, but the Rabbi ceased not to utter fervent but unintelligible words to the occupant of the tomb until torrents of rain descended from heaven, and all were obliged to wrap themselves in their cloaks and coverings.
The officer of the guard now hurried to the spot, threw himself at the Rabbi's feet, and humbly begged him to forgive the insult which he had offered him. Then he raised him on his shoulders, and carried him home, The joy of the city was unbounded. Moslems and Christians openly expressed their belief that they were indebted to the Jews for the rain, and
84 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [cha,p. iv.
acknowledged with shame that their prayers were morQ acceptable to God than their own.
A favourite place of Jewish pilgrimage is the sepulchre of Eabbi Akiba and his 24,000 disciples, which occupies a hillside near Tiberias. Here the pilgrims remain for a day and night und^r tents, burning lamps and offering prayers. Behind the Rabbi's tomb is a fountain of cool water for the use of the devotees. Of this saintly man and his wife the following charmingly romantic story is told : —
Eabbi Akiba ben Joseph was a shepherd in the employment of the wealthy Kalba Zebua of Jerusa- lem, whose sepulchre is still identified by the Jews among the " Tombs of the Kings," as they are called. He loved Rachel, his master's daughter, who con- sented to marry him on the condition that he should go away and become a learned man. Akiba, who was no longer very young, travelled to distant lands, and sat at the feet of the most celebrated teachers. Kalba Zebua disowned his daughter because she had become the shepherd's wife ; but she waited patiently till her husband returned after many years, surrounded with the splendour of a great name, when she proudly hailed him as her own. But still her father was in- exorable. The thirst for knowledge was, however, so powerfully excited in Akiba that, encouraged by his noble. wife, he again left his home, to pursue his studies in other lands under the most celebrated teachers of the law. She waited again for years, never doubting for a moment the afiection of her liusband, though she was reduced to such poverty
CHAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 85
that she had to cut off locks from her dark hair to make rings, which she sold. The whole world was filled with Akiba's fame ; his original and able ex- planations of the law had themselves all the authority of law. His reputation rose so high that a Rabbi, who had formerly opposed him, affirmed that he who gave up Eabbi Akiba gave up everlasting life, and that his spirit of divination had restored all that tra- dition had forgotten. His scholars asserted that he knew the meaning of many passages of the law of which even the Prophet Moses himself had remained ignorant. A wonderful, hyperbolical, but, so far as regards Akiba's reputation for learning, characteris- tic legend relates that the Prophet asked the Lord what was the meaning of certain marks over some of the letters of the law. The Lord answered that after many generations there would arise a man of the name of Akiba, who would explain the secret meaning of these marks. The Prophet begged the Lord to show him the figure of the man, on which the Lord ordered him to sit down in the eighth row of spirits behind Akiba, and the Prophet heard the Rabbi speak- ing and expounding, but he could not understand him. After many years, Akiba returned home, accom- panied by 24,000 disciples, and all the people went forth with joy to meet him. Then his wife forced her way through the crowd, fell down before him who was happier in her love than in all his fame, and, bursting into tears, embraced his knees. The scholars were about to remore the woman, whom they did not know, when the master said to them, "Molest her not ; all that I am, and all that you have become
86 THE .WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap, m
through ine, is the work of this noble woman." He raised her from the ground and kissed her. The stern father was at last reconciled, and bestowed on his children abundant wealth.
The following is one of several legends in which some pious person, by being supernaturally warned of danger to the Jewish community of which he is a member, is able to avert it and cause the evil to recoil upon its designers. This story, I need hardly say, refers to the widespread belief of the use of Christian blood by the Jews at their Passover rites, an accusa- tion which, as before mentioned, is frequently brought against them in the East bj' the Greeks.
The Fire in the Ark of the Covenant}
One Friday evening, the servant of the Talmud- Thora synagogue at Jerusalem, who was sleeping quietly in his bed, was suddenly awakened by a person whom he did not know. The stranger ordered him to hurry at once to the synagogue, as a blood- red fire was blazing in the Ark, where the Thora rolls are kept, and threatened to destroy not only the building, but the whole congregation. The terror- stricken servant rushed to the synagogue and opened the Ark of the Covenant, but could not perceive any traces of fire. He observed, however, by the faint glimmer of the *' Everlasting Light " {Ner Thamid)^ that the position had been changed of the bottle of wine which he had placed there after the benediction.
. ^ Frankl, Jtw$ in the Ea$t, p. 205.
QBAJt. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 87
This circumstance exciting his suspicions, he took out the hottle, saw that it was not the. same, and, pouring out a little of the contents, found that it was filled with blood. He destroyed the bottle, and placed another, filled with white wine, in the Ark, closed the door of the synagogue, and lay down again.
Next morning, immediately after the commence- ment of the service, the Pasha of Jerusalem and the Bishop of the Greek Monastery, followed by a crowd of Moslems, Greeks, priests, and soldiers, made their appearance in the synagogue. All the Jews, with the exception of the servant of the synagogue, turned pale with terror ; he knew that the fire in the Ark was extinguished.
The Pasha ordered his people to search every hole and corner of the building, and when nothing was found to excite suspicion, a Greek pointed to the Ark, and cried, " You must look there." They im- mediately opened the Ark and found the bottle beside the Thora rolls. The Greek shouted :
" This is the blood of a Christian child which they have butchered for their accursed rites ! "
The Bishop took the bottle, and said to the Chief Babbi, " What does this glass bottle contain ? "
" Wine," replied the Kabbi, " which we uSe when pronouncing the benediction."
The. Bishop took the silver cup which stood in the Ark, and filled it from the bottle. It was an amber- coloured, fragrant wine, such as is pressed from the grapes of Hebron. He handed it to the Pasha and to all the spectators to convince them of this. After jail had examined the contents of the silver cup, the
8* THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [cflAP. iv.
Bishop asked the Rabbi*s pardon for having inter* rupted the service. "A liar," he said, pointing to the Greek, " had deceived them."
The Pasha drew a dagger from his girdle, intend- ing to put the oflfender to death. But the Bishop restrained him by saying, " Do not defile a sanctuary which has been consecrated to the One God, the Father, with the blood of a traitor."
When they had left the synagogue, the Greek thought that he might save his life by penitently confessing that he had placed a bottle full of blood in the Ark, and could not understand how it had been removed. But this only increased the Pasha*s wrath, and he struck him to the earth with his dagger.
The demons do not appear to be credited with immortality, although they are believed to be very long lived. Their former chief, Ashraedai, or Asmo- deus, whom King Solomon is said to have confined in his signet ring, is now no more, and his son Daniel now reigns as King of the Demon World.
In the days of Ashmedai, a man one day put down a bucket of water, as he thought, with great care ; but all at once he felt a pain in his foot. A Rabbi looked into the water and asked, " What hast thou done to the man there?" Ashmedai answered from the water, ** Seest thou not that he has put the bucket on my foot ? " Said the Eabbi, " Thou, being a spirit, canst see the man, but the man cannot see thee." The water-carrier immediately lifted up the bucket, and begged Ashmedai's pardon, on which the pain immediately left his foot. But the place where
CHAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 8g
the bucket had stood was marked with the print of a cocVs claw.
Ashmedai and King Solomon.
When King Solomon was about to build the Temple he was in great perplexity, for, according to the command of the Lord, no iron tool was to be used in rearing the sacred edifice. He called all the wise men of Israel together, and asked them what he was to do under the circumstances. An aged coun- sellor said :
" 0 King, there is a worm called Shameer, which, when placed upon stone or iron, cuts it in pieces in any shape desired. Moses used it when he made the breastplate for Aaron the high priest. But this Shameer is now in the hands of the demons, and they have hidden it, none knows where.*'
King Solomon dismissed the assembly, and, as he had power over the evil spirits, he made two of them appear before him, and asked them, " Which of you keeps the Shameer concealed ? "
They replied, trembling, "O king and master, Ashmedai, our lord, only knows where this precious worm is to be found.'*
"And where is Ashmedai ?" asked the King.
They replied, " He is far away, on such and such a mountain ; there he has his abode, and has digged a well, out of which he drinks, and when he has done •so, he puts a large stone on the mouth of the well, seals it with his seal, and lies down to sleep.**
" That is enough ; you may go,** said Solomon.
He then called Benajah, his chief captain, tolcl him
90 THE .WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
all about the Shameer and Ashmedai, and commanded him to go and find them, at the same time advising him what to do in order to get possession of Ash- medai. He also gave the chief captain a chain, upon which was engraved the Holy Kame, and a ring bearing also the Name, and dismissed him.
Benajah provided himself with several barrels of wine and a quantity of wool, took the chain and the ring, and went in search of the mountain, which he found, and also the well. He made a hole in the well and let all the water out ; then he filbed the hole with the wool, and bored another hole close to it, into which he emptied the barrels of wine. Having thus filled the well with wine and closed the hole, he hid himself to watch for the arrival of Ashmedai, who soon afterwards came up. He examined the stone and the seal on the mouth of the well, found all was right, removed it, and as he was very thirsty, took a large draught of the wine, another, and yet another, and becoming quite intoxicated, fell asleep.
Benajah now approached the King of Evil Spirits with the chain upon which the Sacred Name was impressed. When Ashmedai awoke he found himself bound, and endeavoured to break his chain. But Benajah said to him, " It is vain to resist, for thou art bound with the chain on which is the Holy Name. Follow me to King Solomon." Seeing that resistance was useless, he submitted. When they came to his presence the King of Israel de- manded qfi him the Shameer. Ashmedai was unwill- * ing.to reveal the place of its concealment, but was jfilialjy compelled to divulge how the worm might be
CHAP. IV.] . JUDAIC WOMEN. 91
procured, which was again done by the brave Bena- jah, and the Temple of Solomon was built in all its glory. The King of the Demons meanwhile lan- guished in chains, while Solomon revelled in luxury. Said Ashmedai one day to his captor :
"Take this chain from off me, and give me thy ring only for a moment, and I will make thee the greatest monarch of the world."
Solomon commanded the chain to be taken off, and gave to the Demon his ring. But no sooner was Ashmedai free than he seized the King and hurled him thousands of miles away, took his ring and threw it into the sea, transformed himself into the likeness of Solomon, and reigned in his stead.
While Ashmedai ruled in Jerusalem, Solomon wandered from place to place announcing that he was the King of the Jews, but people only laughed at him, and took him for a madman. Finally he came to Jerusalem, telling the same story, but none would listen to or believe him. Afflicted and cast down, he left the Holy City again, and went towards the sea- coast. Before losing sight, however, of its sacred walls, he prostrated himself in prayer before God, asking for pardon and for his restoration to the throne, and then continued his journey towards the nearest seaport town. As he approached he met a fisherman, who offered a fish for sale. Solomon bought it, and when he opened the fish found within it his sacred ring, which Ashmedai had thrown into the sea. The moment he put it on, he felt himself a changed man, that he was again Solomon the King. He returned to his capital, made himself known to the Sanhedrim,
94 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
and related to them his adventures. The Council sent for Benajah, who confirmed Solomon's story. They then summoned the women of the royal house- hold, and asked them, " Have ye ever seen the feet of him who calleth himself King Solomon ? " They re- plied, " Nay, for he covers his person with a large mantle so that we cannot see his feet.** This question was put to ascertain whether the supposed King was a Demon, for the Demons have not human feet, but claws like a cock. The Sanhedrim were now per- suaded that it was Ashmedai, and advised Solomon to enter the royal palace and hold the sacred ring before the impostor. When Ashmedai saw the ring, he shrieked aloud and vanished, and Solomon reigned as before.*
tc
Thou for Mcy I for Thee.'*^
In the village of Khasskeui' there lived a poor Jewish girl, fourteen years of age, who supported her- self by weaving and dyeing kerchiefs for head-dresses. A year had elapsed since her betrothal, and she worked all the more diligently in order to have some- thing to lay by for her trousseau.
She awoke one night when the moon was shining so brightly that, thinking it was dawn, she arose, and hastened to the shore of the Bosphorus, to wash the cloth which she had already woven so as to prepare it for dyeing. While thus busily engaged, a beautiful
^ Gould's Curious Myih» of the Middle Ages contains (p. 386) another version of this story.
^ Frankl, Jews in the East^ p. 164.
3 " Ehasskem," says Evliya Effendi, ''is a Jews' town, like ^alonioa'^ {Narrative of Travels^ pt. ii. p. 41).
CHAP. IV.] JUDAIC WOMEN. 93
youth, who had approached uuperceived, stood before her, and asked, in a soft, insinuating voice :
" What art thou doing here at this hour ? "
The girl now observed — what had before escaped her notice — that it was not day, and that she had been deceived by the light of the moon. Still con- tinuing her labour, however, she replied :
*^ I am a maker of kerchiefs, and I am now washing them ready for dyeing."
The youth dropped two pieces of English gold at her feet, and disappeared as suddenly as he had come.
The following night she was again deceived by the light of the moon, and returned to the shore of the JBosphorus. Arrived there, she suddenly remembered for the first time the incident of the previous night. The youth was now waiting for her, and, as she drew near, he advanced to meet her, placed gold bracelets on her finely moulded arms, and said :
" Thou for me ; I for thee ! '*
The girl was very much startled, and was about to make some reply to the youth, when he again dis- appeared.
Several months passed away ; and the girl still con- tinued to weave and dye her kerchiefs. One day, when she was sweeping the room in which she lived, she found a gold piece similar to those which the youth had given her in the fair moonlight, and with which she had gradually purchased the materials for her trousseau. But from this time the image of the youth was always present to her sight, and his strange words, " Thou for me ; I for thee," were constantly ringing in her ears. Yet though she frequently
94 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. iv.
went l)y night to their former meeting-place, he did not again : appear^ One day, however, he suddenly entered her apartment, and offered her flour in a silver dish to bake sweet cakes for him.
" I will do whatever my lord commands his slave," she replied, and began to mix the flour with wine, eggs, and sugar. While doing so, she observed that the youth had disappeared ; but when the cakes were baked, and ready for eating, he stood before her again, as if he had never left her.
The day of the betrothed girl's marriage at length arrived, and, as is usual on such occasions, before the wedding night her relatives carried the painted wooden box containing her trousseau to the house of the bride- groom. When the marriage feast was eAded, she went to the trunk to change her clothes, but found it quite empty. On this the relations made great lamen- tation, and the bridegroom wept. But the bride attempted to console them by saying :
"He will give me more pieces of gold to enable me to buy new clothes."
All cried out in astonishment : " Who ? "
" He," she quietly replied ; and to all the matrons, who, suspecting that something must be wrong, pressed her to say who " He '' might be, she only answered, "Thou for me; I for thee."
The relatives now hurried to the Beshdin^ and sub^* mitted this very curious case to the Eabbis. These learned men perceived at once that a demon had chosen the girl for his wife, and separated the newly married pair without further delay.
CHAPTER V.
t
DUNMEH .WOMEN : THEIR FAMILY LIFE AND BELIEFS.
The sect of the Diinmehs (the Turned), as they are called by the Turks, or the Mameeni {the Faithful), as they terra themselves, are the descendants of the followers of Sabatha'i S^vi,^ who, in 1666, proclaimed himself at Smyrna as the Messiati. As so very little is generally known of this strange community, it may be well, before attempting to describe the beliefs and customs peculiar to it, to give a brief sketch of its origin. According to most of the authorities on this subject, Sabathai S^vi was a native of Smyrna, where his father followed the calling of broker to an English merchant. Having, at an early age, shown great aptitude for study, he was sent to a Eabbinical school in that city, where he was instructed in the whole cycle of Talmudic lore. When fifteen, he devoted himself to the study of the Kabbala, the mysteries of which he rapidly mastered, and became proficient in the knowledge both of "those things which are revealed and those things which were hidden.'* At eighteen he obtained the honourable appellation of "Sage," when he commenced to deliver public lectures,
^ According to Dr. Jean de Lent, this was the eighteenth false Mesisiah . who had appeared since the Christian era.
96 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY, [chap. v.
expounding to crowded audiences both the Divine Law and the Esoteric Doctrines. At the age of twenty-four he is said to have revealed to his disciples that he was the Messiah, the son of David, who would redeem the Jews from servitude to the Christians and Moslems, at the same time publicly pronouncing the Tetragrammaton — the name, Yahveh — which it is lawful only for the High Priest to do in the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement. This becoming known to the Beshdin^ or Rabbinical Court, two of their number proceeded to warn him that, if he sinned thus a second time, he would be " cast out of the synagogue, and his slayer would be commended." Sabathai then declared himself to be the Anointed of the Lord and authorised to pronounce His. sacred name. The Rabbis then adjudged him to be worthy of death, and forthwith excommunicated him.
Leaving his native city, he proceeded to Salonica, where he promulgated his doctrines with some success, and married and subsequently divorced two beautiful Jewesses. Proceeding to Greece, and thence to Italy, he at Leghorn married a third wife. Continuing his mission, by way of Tripoli to Syria, he finally arrived at Jerusalem. Here Sabathai at once announced him- self as the Reformer of the Law, and declared the fast of Tamuz abolished. He very shortly fell in with a Jew of the name of Nathan, whom he took into his confidence. This worthy, whose genius appears to have coincided with that of Sabathai, at once accepted the r61e of forerunner, and immediately began to spread the tidings of the advent of the Messiah. " The Bridegroom was among them," he announced to
CUAP. v.] DUNMEH WOMEN. 97
the populace, and they were liberated from the painful observances of tlie Law, and ought to honour His coming with rest and rejoicing. That he speedily made many proselytes among the more ignorant and fanatical will appear less surprising when we take into account the fact that it was at a period when the popular mind was persuaded of the approach of a moral and religious revolution, and that various prophecies had more par- ticularly pointed to the year 1 666 as the epocli of some great and important event.
Sabathai, on his side, preached with equal success at Gaza the deliverance of the Jewish people from the yoke of the stranger, and the redemption of Israel, for the Jews of that neighbourhood began to abandon their worldly occupations, and to devote their time to acts of charity and piety. They also communicated their enthusiasm to the Hebrews dispersed in other parts of the Empire, large numbers of whom were de- ceived into the belief that the long-promised Messiah was at last among them. The impostor, satisfied with, and encouraged by, his reception in Syria, now determined to return to Smyrna, and proclaim himself also to the Jews of Constantinople. Nathan meanwhile repaired to Damascus, whence he wrote a letter to his colleague, recognising him as the " Lord of Lords '* and " Messiah of the God of Jacob." He also wrote epistles to the Jews at Aleppo, proclaiming his mission and the doc- trines of the Messiah. The Israelites throughout the Ottoman Einpire now began to manifest, in the most extravagant fashion, their joy at the supposed advent of the Messiah; and in some towns strange and altnost incredible scenes were witnessed by their
Or
98 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. v.
astonished Moslem and Christian neighbours. Sir Paul Eycaut, who was an eye-witness of some of these extravagances, describes them at length, and adds that " they affected such pageantry of greatness that no comedy could equal the mock-shows they represented."* So numerous were the believers in some places that trade came to a complete standstill. The Jews wound up their affairs, disposed of their goods, and made ready to be redeemed from captivity and led by their Messiah in triumph to Jerusalem. The foreign Con- suls were ordered by their respective Governments to inquire into this extraordinary movement, and the Ottoman Pashas reported to the Sultan the interrup- tion of commerce in the districts they governed.
The contagion soon spread westwards, and many of the Jews of Italy, Holland, and Germany prepared to sell their property, or leave all, to follow the Messiah, already persuaded that they were to becorme lords over the whole earth. Everywhere commerce and manual labour were interrupted, those who had wealth feeding those who had none, and distributing their possessions in the hope of receiving greater. And everywhere the Jews assumed an insupportably arrogant bearing towards the Gentiles, who, they de- clared, would shortly become their slaves.
In the meantime, Sabath^ arrived at Smyrna, where his appearance caused the liveliest agitation among his co-religionists. The vulgar received him with the utmost enthusiasm ; but fear of Moslem ridicule pre- vented the Rabbis acknowledging him as the Messiah ; and besides, they were not without doubts as to the
^ The History of Turkej/, dr., p. 207.
CHAP, v.] DUNMEII WOMEN. 99
divinity of his mission. Before deciding whether or no to acknowledge his claims, the Khakham Bashi, or Chief Rabbi, invited Sabatha'i to a conference with him. The impostor repaired to the Rabbi's residence, accompanied by a rabble of his followers, who remained outside. The interview proving a very long one, the mob imagined that Sabathai was forcibly detained, and appealed to tlie Kadi in his behalf, giving to the authorities by this indiscretion the first warning of what was going forward. The Kadi, however, took bribes from both sides, and finally sent the case to be tried by the Rabbinical Court. The party in Sabatha'i's favour was too strong to make it prudent for the Jewish authorities to interfere openly with the impostor ; but they intrigued against him so successfully that, on his repairing to Constantinople shortly afterwards, he was thrown into prison by the Grand Vizier. The Castle of Abydos, where he was detained, became a great place of pilgrimage for his faithful followers, who paid large bribes to the Turks for permission to visit their Messiah. His reputation increased every day. He drew out the plan of a new ceremonial and a new religion ; formulated the manner of observing the anniversary of his birth ; deter- mined the order of pilgrimage to the tomb of his mother, and attached to its performance special privi- leges. All the prophecies were interpreted in his favour by his enthusiastic followers, and the walls of the synagogues were decorated with his anagram. Another would-be Messiah, however, Nehemiah Cohen, being refused by Sabathai a share in the Messiahship, revenged himself by denouncing him to the Ministers
loo THE WOMEN OF TUEKEY. [chap. V,
of the Sultan, and represented to thera that if this false Messiah were not speedily suppressed he would prove dangerous to the peace of the realm.
It was, however, reserved for Sultan Mohammed IV, himself to unmask the impostor. When brought before him in his palace at Adrianople, the Padishah demanded of Sabathai, "Canst thou work miracles? " *' I can," was the reply. " Then," resumed the Sultan, " thou shalt be a target for ray archers. If their arrows harm thee not, then art thou indeed the Mahdi*' Fear compelling the Jew to confess his imposture, the alternative was offered him of death by impalement or profession of the faith of Islam. He chose the latter, declaring that his object had always been to lead his followers to acknowledge that ** there is no Grod but Allah, and Mohammed is his Prophet," and that he had deferred doing this onl}^ until he could make his profession of faith in the presence of his Sovereign.
Great was the consternation of his adherents, and loud the mockery with which they were assailed, both by Jews and Gentiles. Such, however, was the credulity of a certain few, that they continued to believe in the divinity of Sabathai's mission, and, while outwardly imitating their leader in his apostasy, in order to escape persecution by the Jews, they con- tinued in secret to cherish his doctrines. Sabathai, on his side, was allowed to remain at the Ottoman Court, where he sat at the feet of " that Gamaliel of the law of Islam," Vanni Effendi. Antoine Galland, the first translator into a European language of the Arabian Nights^ who resided at Constantinople in the
XJHAP. v.] DUNMEH WOMEN. loi
yefirs 1672-73, mentions in his Journal varioUvS little incidents whicli came under his personal notice, re- lating to the subsequent career of this famous impostor, who appears to have died in prison at Belgrade in 1 676.
The devoted followers of Sabathai, however, stead- fastly maintained that their Messiah was not really dead, but that he had ascended to heaven in bodilv form. And now, at Salonica, in each of their KalSy or secret places of worship, they, it is said, keep a bed always ready, on which he may repose from the fatigue of his second advent. Either from the fact of Sabathai's having disappeared from the world at Bel- grade, or from his having left Salonica by the Vardar gate, he is expected to arrive from that direction, and jevery day, for the last two centuries, a Dunmeh has gone out on this road at sunrise in order to meet and welcome him. Since the opening of the railway- between Belgrade and Salonica, a question has arisen as to the possibility of the Messiah's arrival in the latter city by train. And consequently, report says, a Dtinmeh is always to be seen at the terminus when the northern mail is due, watching eagerly for the passenger who has tarried so long, and at whose coming the Faithful will be rewarded for their long watching and service by being appointed lords of the earth.
The head-quarters of the followers of Sabathai S^vi in Turkey is at Salonica, where they are said to number 3ome eight thousand souls. Small as the sect is, it is divided into three sub-sects, the members of which, though they take no part in the secret devotions of the other two, yet live on good terms with them.
The first and chief of these sub-sects consists, of
I02 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. v.
course, of the orthodox followers of Sabathai Sevi, and are called Ismir/i, The men are distinguished by having their chins shaved, and being addressed by the title of Tche/ebi, or " gentleman." They also claim to be descendants of the best families of the Jews who came to that city from Spain. The second sub-sect, called Jacohines, are the followers more especially of Jacobus Querido, a reputed son of Sabathai, who claimed for himself the inheritance of the Messiahship, but whose pretensions were scouted by the more ortho- dox. The third and smallest sub-sect profess to be fol- lowers of Osman Baba, who lived at the beginning of the last century, and who, in his eflPorts to reconcile the two existing sub-sects, formed another, whose out- ward mark of distinction is that they shave neither the chin nor the head. The three parties observe respectively distinct customs in trifles, such as using drinking-cups with or without handles, and other peculiarities, to which, though meaningless to outsiders, some symbolic significance is, no doubt, attached.
The Dunmehs are, as a community, highly respect- able, industrious, and prosperous. Poverty, indeed, is said to be non-existent among them, the wealthy help- ing those less successful in worldly affairs and support- ing widows and orphans by an admirably organised system of charity. Ostensibly, their domestic arrange- ments are similar to those of the Turks, the houses of the wealthy being divided into haremlik and seldmlik^ the furniture of which consists chiefly of divans round three sides of the room, with a console sur- mounted by a mirror, and a few common chairs. The dwellings of the community are clustered together in
CHAP, v.] DtfNMEH WOMEN. 103
a little quarter of their own, in the centre of the city, and all communicate with each other by means of interior doorways and passages, which also afford access to their kah^ or secret assembly-rooms.
Out of doors, the Dunmeh women wear the Turkish cloak and veil, but appear to be less restricted in their intercourse with strangers than hond-Jide Moslems. One may, for instance, see them, divested of their out- door garb, at Jewish weddings, exposed to the gaze of dozens of the other sex ; and it would appear that social intercourse among the Dunmeh themselves is quite unrestricted. Under the yashmak and feridge is worn either the picturesque and many-coloured Jewiish costume, or, in imitation of the Turkish women, an Oriental modification of Western fashions. The bridal dress of a Dllnmeh girl, to whose wedding dughun I was invited, was a short loose jacket, and long trailing skirt of crimson velvet, with a broad border, worked in gold thread in an elaborate floral design. Some of the women are handsome, though, like the Jewesses of the East generally, they have a dull, apathetic ex- pression. Two centuries of constant intermarriage have also produced a type less nosey, I think, and thick- lipped than that of the surrounding Jews, than whom the Dunmehs are also much lessvoluble in conversation, and much more dignified in appearance and demeanour.
In point of education, however, the Dunmeh women are even less advanced than either their Turkish or Jewish sisters. No girls' school of any description seems to have existed until some dozen years ago, when an intelligent member of the com- munity, Shemshi Eftbndi, determined to remove this
I04 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. v.
cause of reproach from his people, succeeded in opening one on a small scale at Salonica, which he personally supervised. Some of the first pupils were girls of fourteen or fifteen, already betrothed, whom custom obliged to retain their veils and cloaks while receiv- ing their lessons. None of them could either read or write, nor had they any wish to learn, but came to school for the purpose of benefiting by the instruction given in needle- and fancy-work by a trained Greek mistress. The curriculum, we were informed, was limited to *'the three E's.'' The girls sat cross- legged on the floor at their lessons or work, in untidy dresses and dishevelled hair, and their manners gene- rally left much to be desired, even from an Oriental point of view. With the younger pupils, however, the director looked for better success than with the "grown-up young ladies." And a beginning having been made, there is now some hope that, before the return of Sabathai Sevi, the Dlinmeh girls, too, may share in some of the educational advantages enjoyed by their Christian and Jewish neighbours.
The Dunm^hs seem to be more averse than any of the other races of the East to intermarriage with per- sons belonging to other creeds. A Turk of Salonica was, it is said, not long ago, attracted by a girl be- longing to the sect, and wished to marry her. The girl's friends were, however, so opposed to the match that they oflfered a bribe of four thousand liras to induce the wooer to abandon his pursuit of her. If a Dlinmeh girl be led astray by an outsider, no effort is spared to recover the erring one, who, it is
CHAP, v.] DUNMEH WOMEN. 105
said, is tried, condemned, and executed for her sin by a secret tribunal of her own people.
In their family ceremonies the Dunm^hs conform outwardly to the Moslem customs, which 1 shall pre- sently describe. Eumour, however, whispers of secret rites and mysterious domestic usages, neither Moslem nor Jewish, of which stolen glimpses have from time to time been obtained by curious neighbours. One of these stories relates how a Grreek woman, hired to make confectionery in a Dlinm^h house on the eve of a wedding, secreted herself, and witnessed some strange ceremonies, among which was the passing a hoop, covered with flowers, over the bride's head and down to her feet. Mr. Theodore Bent, in his article entitled " A Peculiar People," * says that some DUnm^h ladies gave Mrs. Bent some curious details connected with birth-customs. But, as these were apparently so freely imparted, I venture to think that they were merely current Turkish or Jewish customs, and not peculiar to the sect.
Conformity with the creed which they outwardly profess obliges the Dunm^hs to put in an occasional appearance at the public services in the mosques on Fridays and festivals. The mosques, however, are many, and the Turkish nature is too indolent to allow the good hodjas and imams to inquire into the cause of absence of the True Believers, who may have gone to worship in another temple ; and with the devotions of the women they would think still less of concerning themselves. So the Diinmeh tradesman, like a good
^ IjongmarCs Magazine, Nov. 1887. Mrs. Bent, unfortunately, made no note of these details, and informs me that she cannot recall them.
io6 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY, [chap. v.
Moslem, closes his shop on Friday, and, though he takes down his shutters on the Jewish Sabbath, and sits cross-legged on the raised floor which serves him as counter and shop window, he makes no effort, as on other days, to thrust his wares on the passers-by. If a customer, attracted by some article on his shelves, should present himself, the Dlinmeh reaches it down as if sorry to part w^ith it, and appears rather relieved than disappointed if no purchase is made.
The following sixteen rules and precepts are said to comprise the principal dogmas of the Dunmeh creed ;^ but I altogether question their literal accuracy. No doubt, however, they are true to fact in their spirit of Semitic intolerance and assumptions of superiority, and in the traces they exhibit of that Oriental mysticism which teaches that all the great prophets and seers who have ever lived were successive mani- festations of the Divine Spirit which appeared first in Adam and last in Mohammed.
I. A belief in the unity of God and Messiahship of Sabathai Sevi ; that Adam, Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Esther, and other Biblical characters were all parts of the soul of this Messiah, who has undergone eighteen incarnations.
II. That all the earth is made for the Mameeni (the followers of Sabathai), and that the Turks were only created to keep guard over them. " There is," they say, " no egg without a shell ; the Turks are the shells, and the Mameeni the eggs."
^ I give these precepts on the authority of Mr. Bent« whose informants were, I believe, the Scottish missionary to the Jews, and a Jewish friend of his. Jdbrs. Blunt, however, when writing the Pitaple of Turkey, made all possible inquiries on this subject, and was promised information by those who pro- fessed to be in possession of it ; but the result was disappointingly small.
CHAP, v.] DUNMEH WOMEN. 107
III. All who are not Jews are "eggshells'' {kilipa).
IV. It is unlawful for the Mameeni to marry either Jews or "eggshells."
V. The Mameeni alone will inherit the kingdom of heaven. •
VI. The souls of " eggshells " at death go down to Gehenna and remain there.
V II. All the Jews who are not at present Mameeni will become believers when their eyes are opened to the truth that Moses and the other prophets were but sparks of the soul of Sabathai, and then they will themselves become sparks of his soul.
VIII. In all their acts to obey the Law of Moses.
IX. Not to hate, but to conciliate, the Jews, who are destined to become their brethren.
X. Not to endeavour to proselytise the Jews, whom God Himself will show the way to the other world.
XI. Outwardly to live as Moslems, but in their hearts to be Israelites.
XII. Not to think it sin in the eyes of God to slay a Mameeni who transgresses any of these precepts.
XIII. All Mameeni must obey the laws of Islam in worldly matters. They must not, however, plead before a Turkish tribunal, but be judged by members of their own community; and while subjecting them- selves to the Turks, not abase themselves before them unnecessarily.
XIV. To abstain from intoxicating drink.*
^ This rule appears to be more especially intended as a safeguard against any betrayal of sectarian secrets. So strictly is it observed that a DiinmC'h will not drink water from a vessel which has, at any time, contained wine or other intoxicating liquor
io8 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. v.
XV. To have two names, a Turkish one for worldlv use, and a sectarian one, known only to the com- munity.
XVI. To repeat the names of the " higher powers " twice every day.
The Kah or meeting-houses of the Dunmehs are, it is said, built without windows, and are lighted with green lamps. Rumour also affirms that their services, at which they use the forms and rules of devotion appointed by their Messiah, are held in Judseo-Spanish ; that they wear during their performance the white ialith of the Jews ; and that they must have some sort of sacrifice at the feast of Passover, for blood may then be observed on the lintels of their houses, and on the foreheads of their children. As, however, little or nothing is positively known of their beliefs and prac- tices, conjecture has full scope, and the. imagination of their chief enemies, the Jews, runs riot in inventing crimes to lay at their door. They are accused of hold- ing secret assemblies by night, at which they indulge in every kind of immorality, an accusation which has been brought against every peculiar sect which has made any secret of its doctrine. Tlie main reason, however, for the ill-repute in which the Dunmehs are held by Moslems, Christians, and Jews alike would appear to be the double life they are compelled to lead by their outward profession of one creed and secret devotion to another. A few travelled Dunmehs, whose more liberal education has caused them to find the trammels of the community irksome, have thrown them off by marrying " eggshells " and settling abroad.
Bishop Gr^goire, in his IJistoire des Sectes, afiirms
CHAP, v.] DITNMEH WOMEN. 109
that there is another class of Moslemised Jews at Salonica who are frequently confounded with the followers of Sabathai Sevi. According to this author, a number of Jewish bankers of this city being, some century and a half ago, condemned to death by the Pasha, saved their lives and property by a nominal apostasy, and, to the number of thirty families, em- braced the creed of Islam. They now number, says the Bishop, from a hundred to a hundred and fifty families, having from that time intermarried, and con- tinue to follow in private the strict observance of the Jewish religion.^
^ Tome iii. p. 340.
THE WOMEN OF TURKEY
PART III.
THE MOSLEM WOMEN
CHAPTER I.
KURDISH WOMEN: THEIR STATUS AND
OCCUPATIONS.
The Kurds are to be found scattered all over the Eastern Highlands of Asia Minor, from the Taurus to the Caucasus, as well as in Kurdistan proper, where the population' is equally mixed. Under the name of Kurd, however, two distinct races are included, who form as great a contrast to each other in physiog- nomy as in character and manner of life. The one race is nomad, warlike, and full of vivacity, the other is agricultural, pacific, and not remarkable for inteUi- gence.^ The features of the peasantry are much softer and less pronounced than those of the tribes- men, who have long and rather aquiline noses, pro- minent foreheads, keen, deep set eyes, generally black, but sometimes grey, or even blue, small mouths, and pointed chins. Their step is firm, their bearing proud and dignified, and at the first glance one sees that they are the lords of the country.
The Kurds generally are strong, healthy, well- built people, and in spite of the inequalities of climate of the country they inhabit, live to a good old age. The children are clear-skinned, rosy-
1 The Turkish proverb, " Stupid as a Kurd," applies only to the peasants of this nation.
114 THE WOMEN OF TURKEY. [chap. i.
cheeked, hardy, lithe and active little creatures, and the young women — in the Taurus especially — are said to be models of physical beauty. Mr. Mil- lingen gives the following glowing description ot one among the many handsome girls he saw during his residence among these freebooting highlanders : " Her complexion gave me an idea of what must have been the bloom of the forbidden apple of the ter- restrial Paradise. Her eyes, of a dark chestnut, shone like brilliants through the veil of her thick, long eye- lashes, while nose and mouth were perfect in their delicacy of shape. Though the garments she wore were not of a superior sort, yet through their folds her graceful form could be detected. But what above all contributed to make her really charming was the calm, simple, and, so to say, infantine air which dis- tinguished her countenance and the whole of her demeanour. " ^
Some Kurdish families in Boktan and Hakkari claim descent from the Ommeyide Khalifs, and some travellers are of opinion that the tribe of the Rowadi, to which Saladin belonged, may possibly be the same as the modern Revendi, or Rewendi. The chiefs of the Bebbeh clan confidently affirm that they have in their veins English blood from an ancestress called Keighan, the legend concerning whom will be found in a subsequent chapter.' Less mythical, perhaps, is the story of the company belonging to the Second Crusade (i 147-49), who wandered in a north-easterly direction from Syria, and not being
^ Wild Life among ike KUrds. ' See p. 174,
CHAP. I.J KURDISH WOMEN. 115
able to find their way back, settled in the mountains of Kurdistan.^
The two above described classes of Kurds are dis- tinguished among themselves by terms signifying re- spectively, " Dwellers in tents/' or '' Nomads," and "Labourers," or "Subjects" [Rayahs),
The peasant Kurds are said to outnumber the warriors in the proportion of four or five to one. The latter are estimated at some thirteen thousand fami- lies, of whom ten thousand are nomad, the remainder being settled in the towns and villages. All these wairior Kurds are divided into tribes, of which they distinguish three kinds : ashire (great tribes), quabile (medium tribes), and thaifes (small tribes). These are counted by tents or houses, each of which contains from five to twenty inmates. The great tribes are subdivided into quabiles and thaifes, or merely into thaifeSy which term is also generally used to denote a tribe, whether great or small. The small tribes which are unconnected with an ashire are called isolated thaifes.
The tribes, or clans, consist of the family of the chief, and a number of other families more